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Support four video input, BNC, AV, VGA, HDMI. According to the input signal 1 - 60 seconds automatic switching, does not interfere with other signal sources.

Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky and less energy-efficient cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. The phosphors used in CRTs make them vulnerable to image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs do not have this weakness, but are still susceptible to image persistence.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented.Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.

Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

LCDs are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:

Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.

In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid crystal.

In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK"s Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody"s team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.

In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio"s "Casiotron". Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,

In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,

The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko"s R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.Citizen Watch,TFT LCD.computer monitors and LCD televisions.3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.compact, full-color LCD projector.

In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.

Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.South Korea and Taiwan,

In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer,

In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets.

Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plateinverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.

EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn"t expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.

WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.

RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.

Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.

Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD, full-area local area dimming).

The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That"s three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.

The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displaysGame Boyactive-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.

Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.

Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.

Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode. IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

Most of the new M+ technology was employed on 4K TV sets which led to a controversy after tests showed that the addition of a white sub pixel replacing the traditional RGB structure would reduce the resolution by around 25%. This means that a 4K TV cannot display the full UHD TV standard. The media and internet users later called this "RGBW" TVs because of the white sub pixel. Although LG Display has developed this technology for use in notebook display, outdoor and smartphones, it became more popular in the TV market because the announced 4K UHD resolution but still being incapable of achieving true UHD resolution defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels with 8-bit color. This negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit fuzzier, which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC monitor.

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers" policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.ISO 13406-2 standard.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.

Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.

Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry. Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain angles.

Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.

Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors that can be displayed, and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color range is divided. Color gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the professional level. Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or below the range of a certain specification.white point and gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed relative to white.

Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.

Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).

No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.

LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.

As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.

Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle. Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.

As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display,CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT"s phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.

Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill the screen (letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.

Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262144 (218) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.

Input lag, because the LCD"s A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.

Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use. A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one will always remain black.

In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.

Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.

The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) as an etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF3 is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming. A report in Geophysical Research Letters suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF3 was not in widespread use at the time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed "the missing greenhouse gas".

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A video magnifier, or closed-circuit television (CCTV) system, uses a stand-mounted or handheld video camera to project a magnified image onto a video monitor, a television (TV) screen, or a computer monitor. Cameras with zoom lenses provide variable magnification. In most of these systems, magnification level and focus are set after choosing a comfortable and functional working distance between the camera and the material to be viewed. Some systems use an auto-focus camera. Lower cost video magnifiers often use cameras that have a fixed focus and cannot vary magnification or camera-to-target distance. Most cameras also need their own light source.

All video magnifiers offer the option of viewing black letters on a white background or white letters on a black background. Controls for contrast and brightness are also standard. Many video magnifiers also provide other special on-screen features and controls including underlining or overlining of text. Some systems work jointly with a computer, offering the option of sharing the computer monitor. Color video magnifiers are useful for reading materials in which color is crucial, such as maps and color photographs. A radical departure in design from conventional video magnifiers is the use of head-mounted displays (HMD). They offer portability and new ways of viewing the display. Being able to capture and save an image is also a new function that has recently become available.

Video magnifier that features a 3-in-1 camera for seeing one"s self up close, reading, and distance viewing. Comes with 20", 22", 24", or 27" high-resolution LCD monitors that provide 1.6x to 99.5x adjustable magnification (varies with LCD size). The camera is also detachable, allowing one to use it at various workstations.

Handheld portable magnifier with a 7" high resolution LCD with large field of view adjustable magnification of 1.4x to 25x. May be used to read price tags, restaurant menus, ingredients on a package and directions.

Pocket-sized, portable video magnifier with a 3.5" wide-screen LCD monitor with a magnification of up to 17x. Has three user-friendly tactile buttons: on/off and mode; magnification; and freeze frame. Comes with a detachable reading stand.

Flexible, portable video magnifier for both near and distance viewing at school, work and home. May be used to view text, photos, blackboards, crafts, etc. and can magnify from 3.5x to 79x on a PC screen or VGA monitor. Has three viewing modes: reading, distance and self-view. The dual control panels on the top and bottom of the camera makes it easy for left-handed or right-handed users. Carrying case included.

Easy-to-use handheld magnifier with a comfortable grip. May also be used for reading or reviewing small print or writing—signing your name, writing checks and filling out forms. Offers a magnification range of 1.5x to 22x when used as a handheld magnifier (with handle extended) or 4.5x, 6x, 9x and12x when used as a stand magnifier (with handle folded) and five viewing modes: full color; black on white; white on black; yellow on blue; yellow on black. May also be plugged into a television to view images on a larger screen.

Portable handheld pocket video magnifier with 1.5x to 15x magnification on a 3.5" LCD screen. Weighs 4.2 ounces and is ideal for people on the go. May be hung around the neck. Tangible magnification and color mode adjustment buttons are handily located above on the right. When placed flat on books or photographs, offers a comfortable viewing angle with a foldable reading stand. Has an auto-focus camera for shooting unreachable materials, such as books on a high shelf. Includes a built-in rechargeable lithium ion battery with 1400mAh capacity and an AC charger, stand, carry case and strap.

Five-inch LCD high-definition handheld portable video magnifier with 2.8x to 22x magnification. May also be used as a stand magnifier. Its unique, ergonomic three-position handle may be comfortably held in the center-balanced position for right-handed or left-handed use. Continuous digital zoom magnification easily increases or decreases the size of the text, photo or object being viewed. All function buttons, including the Freeze Image button, are large and conveniently located on or adjacent to the handle. Weighs less than 10 ounces and may be carried in a coat pocket or purse.

Handheld (with handle) 5.0" LCD HD video magnifier with a unique, ergonomic 3-position handle which can be comfortably held in the center-balanced position, for right-handed or left-handed use. Alternatively, use CANDY 5 HD II as a stand magnifier with included cradle.

Offers three monitor options—full-color 17" TFT monitor, full-color 17" CRT monitor, or a black-and-white 17" CRT monitor—with the additional option of computer compatibility.

Desktop video magnifier that integrates OCR and text-to-speech technology. Allows users to enlarge materials to a more comfortable size or change the high contrast viewing modes with one master dial. The Point and Read interface allows users to simply touch the screen for the Speech feature, and then sit back, relax and listen. Users also have the option to select video magnification to view photos, bills and read shorter text.

Handheld, full-color mouse-style video magnifier that connects to a single USB port on any PC with Windows 7, 8 or 10 with a variable magnification of 3x-100x. Offers high-contrast negative image (pure white text on black background) and high-contrast positive image (pure black text on white background), split screen and more.

Handheld dome magnifier with a continuous magnification range of 1.7x to 12x and 4.3" full color TFT widescreen display. Offers high-contrast viewing modes for easier reading (set up to 4 combinations from a possible choice of 16).

Portable video magnifier that features continuous zoom with 1.5x to 18x magnification, 8 megapixel high-definition and auto-focus camera for superior images, 5" full color TFT wide screen display and 16 high-contrast colors. Has a low vision customizable large icon menu and ergonomic design with two reading positions.

Portable electronic video magnifier that features continuous zoom with 1.5x to 18x magnification, 8 megapixel high-definition and auto-focus camera for superior images, 7" full color TFT wide screen display and 16 high-contrast colors. Has a low vision customizable large icon menu and ergonomic design with two reading positions.

Pocket-sized video magnifier with a 3.5" full color screen with adjustable magnification of 2x, 5x, 8x, and 11x. Offers multiple high-contrast viewing options.

Portable handheld video magnifier with continuous magnification of 2x to 20x and touchscreen controls. Has a 4.3" full-color TFT widescreen display and adjustable document viewing modes and full color for viewing photographs and images as well as four high-contrast color combinations for easier reading including black text on a yellow background.

Small, portable video magnifier with continuous magnification of up to 3x to 10x with a 4.3" full-color TFT widescreen. Displays text in true color, black and white and reverse. Also offers blue/yellow and black/yellow options for easier discrimination.

Screen enlarger that attaches to the top of a standard CRT style monitor. Magnifies 1.5x, reduces glare, and blocks UV rays. Easy to clean and install.

Portable handheld magnifier with a 4.3" TFT display that includes a power on/off switch and offers text and images in 3 levels of magnification--3x, 4.5x and 7x—all of which appear in a variety of color modes, including color, positive, negative, and semi-colors. Micro USB battery charge connector included.

Desktop video magnifier with a 24" high-resolution LCD screen, text-to-speech (OCR) software that reads any printed text aloud with the push of a button, and a 3-in-1 camera that rotates 340 degrees. Offers magnification up to 77x and 8 viewing modes to optimize contrast and brightness. Monitor can also be used as a display for a computer or iPad (additional hardware required).

Desktop video magnifier that features a full high-definition Sony 1080p screen, a 3-in-1 camera, magnification up to 77x, and full-page text-to-speech system. Great for applying make-up, shaving, reading, writing, viewing presentations and whiteboards. The slide mechanism provides flexibility for various camera arm positions.

iPad-compatible, portable, reading, writing and distance video magnifier that provides full-page OCR capability. Can be connected to a Mac via USB 3.0, a PC via USB 2.0/3.0, to a television or computer monitor with HDMI, or directly to an iPad screen via a dedicated Wi-Fi wireless access point. Common touchscreen gestures may be used to adjust the magnification level and image color on an iPad. Reading material may be manipulated smoothly and easily with a joystick control or touchscreen gestures which move the camera in response to touch. The OCR may be used to a scan and listen to a full page of text through a built-in speaker or headset (speaker jack available for earphone or headset).

Portable handheld video magnifier with 2x to 16x magnification, continuous zoom to clearly see every detail, auto-focus, freeze-frame, color mode selector. Also has a built-in stand for signing and filling out forms. Includes a flashlight. May be connected to a television to magnify what"s on the screen. Features large buttons for adjusting magnification and contrast modes.

Smallest, lightest 5" high-definition handheld electronic video magnifier that offers a magnification range from 2x to 22x. Offers more than 18 customizable enhancement modes and three modes of use--out of pocket, with folding handle, or tabletop use. May be connected to a television to display enlarged pictures and text on a bigger screen. Can also store thousands of images for viewing anytime.

Portable, high-definition handheld electronic video magnifier with a 7" high-definition LCD screen that offers a magnification range from 2.3x to 19x. Offers more than 12 contrast and 3 favorite color settings and three modes of use: out of pocket, with folding handle, or tabletop use. May be connected to a television to display enlarged pictures and text on a bigger screen. Can also store thousands of images for viewing anytime.

Desktop video magnifier with auto-focus and manual-focus capabilities with a magnification range of 3.5x to 65x on 22" LCD display or 3.0x to 57x on a 19" model. Monitor comes on an adjustable arm for easy height, tilt and swivel. Features adjustable contrast control and a viewing table equipped with front-to-back and side-to-side (x-y) slides that allow users to position materials under the camera unit for reading, writing, and viewing various items. The table can be locked with an easy one-lever brake feature.

Portable video magnifier with a 4.2" wide screen LCD screen and a 4x to 15x magnification range. Offers full color, black/white or white/black display.

Portable video magnifier for both distance viewing and near vision tasks. Features a fully motorized camera and lens system that enables users to control and retain their settings such as focus and magnification for each viewing mode. The first immersive and touch screen camera system that allows the user to view the desired scene or reading material to controlling the system from a tablet or computer screen without manual manipulation of the camera. The touch screen interface also features familiar gesture control; may also be controlled with a mouse or keyboard on traditional laptop or desktop computers. Connects to Windows 7 or 8 tablets or Windows 7, 8 or Mac laptops/desktops.

Portable video magnifier that opens and closes like a laptop computer with a magnification range of 6.5x to 15x. Can be rolled across text or used with its integrated handheld mouse camera. Its 7" flat-panel screen folds down for portability.

Portable, high-definition video magnifier with average adjustable magnification of 2x to77x (varies with HD screen size). Attaches to any television or PC monitor.

Full-color, mouse-style video magnifier with an ultra-lightweight 12" screen that can be easily mounted on any wall in the Kitchen. Offers MD Mode which provides pure white text on a black background for maximum contrast and reduced glare for anyone with acute sensitivity to light. This can be especially beneficial for anyone with macular degeneration. Other features include greyscale image, pure black text on a white background with 10x magnification.

Mouse-style video magnifier with an ultra-lightweight 12" screen that can be easily mounted on any wall in the Kitchen. Offers full-color magnification and MD mode, which provides pure white text on a black background for maximum contrast and reduced glare for anyone with acute sensitivity to light. This can be especially beneficial for anyone with macular degeneration. Other features include greyscale image, pure black text on a white background and 10x magnification.

Black and white, mouse-style video magnifier with an ultra-lightweight 12" screen that can be easily mounted on any wall in the kitchen. Offers MD Mode which provides pure white text on a black background for maximum contrast and reduced glare for anyone with acute sensitivity to light. This can be especially beneficial for anyone with macular degeneration. Other features include greyscale image, pure black text on a white background and variable magnification.

Standalone scanning device that integrates reading and magnifying together. Built with multiple output interfaces such as VGA and HDMI and can be connected to any monitor or television (not included) via HDMI to get the additional display of the captured image, enabling user to see the image while listening to the text being read. Features high-quality, multilingual text recognition; magnifiers for reading entire page; pause, forward and rewind capability; adjustable reading speed; multiple text color to suit user’s specific need; crystal clear font at any zoom level.

Portable video magnifier with both near and distance viewing capabilities for reading, writing and viewing distance objects with a magnification range from 1.5x to 50x and a 12" TFT display. Function buttons include overview mode, freeze image function, viewing mode selection, brightness adjustment and semi-color selection.

Portable, handheld video magnifier with a 3.5" display screen with a magnification range of 2x to 20x and five viewing modes: full color, black on white, white on black (reversed), yellow on blue, and yellow on black. Has a foldable handle and weighs 7 oz.

Lightweight, portable electronic video magnifier with a large 5" high-contrast full-color LCD screen with MD mode (white text on black background) and variable magnification and a 6-hour battery life.

Monitor magnifier that fits over most 19" widescreen flat panel LCD monitors for desktop computers. Helps reduce glare, reflection and UV rays overall reducing eyestrain and fatigue. Magnifies up to 1.5x.

Video magnifier that can be connected to a computer or a monitor for use in a classroom for viewing materials or to record a lesson or presentation with the video recording feature or as a regular video magnifier at home, connected to an LVI monitor and a docking station. Comes with both HDMI and USB 3.0 connections and can be controlled by the integrated control box or from the computer’s keyboard. The camera is available in HD or SD resolution.

Connects to any monitor and is ideal for use at home for reading, working on scrapbooks, reviewing documents, or sharing photos or even looking at one’s self using the mirror mode. Comes with an HDMI connector. Has a built-in control panel and uses minimal space. Camera is available in HD or SD resolution. Accessories such as 2-i-1-carrying case and a docking station available.

Connects to any monitor and is ideal for use at home for reading, working on scrapbooks, reviewing documents, or sharing photos or even looking at one’s self using the mirror mode. Comes with an HDMI connector. Has a built-in control panel and uses minimal space. Camera is available in HD or SD resolution. Accessories such as 2-i-1-carrying case and a docking station available.

Video magnifier with text-to-speech functionality. Spoken text is synchronized with the magnified text and is easy to follow. Comes with an HD camera, USB 3.0 and HDMI connectors, as well as built-in control panel. Text can be read aloud with increase reading speed and endurance. Reads any printed text by sentence, word or paragraph. The OCR scanned text can be saved and opened in a text editor for proofing and rewrites. May be used with headphones.

Portable video magnifier with a combined reading and distance camera, for connection either to a PC or to a computer screen. Comes with a high-resolution camera and weighs 2.9 lbs. and is mounted in a few seconds with a connection through USB 2.0. Additional features include video recording with sound, freezing of image and dual monitor support.

Portable video magnifier with an HD reading and distance camera. Comes with a low-vision adapted 17.3-inch monitor and a stable x-y table for comfortable reading and precise control. Has all the functions offered in a desktop video magnifier but can be folded and carried to another location easily. Good choice for users who read frequently and sometimes need to move their video magnifier between different locations, for example home and work, hotel, summer house, etc.

Foldable, portable video magnifier with a 13.3" monitor with full high-definition auto-focus camera. Can be connected to a PC/Mac with USB/HDMI connection (optional) and with TTS software for PC/Mac (optional) for reading text aloud.

Foldable, portable video magnifier with a 13.3" monitor with full auto-focus camera. Can be connected to a PC/Mac with USB/HDMI connection (optional) and with TTS software for PC/Mac (optional) for reading text aloud.

Color portable video magnifier with a magnification range of approximately 7.3x to 30x for reading and approximately 3x to 12x for writing. Comes with a 5.8" TFT-monitor (can be tilted).

Full-color, auto-focus video magnification system with optional monitor sizes and styles--the classic CRT 14" or 20" to the newer ergonomic sleek LCD 17" or 19" monitors and 2.7x to 85x adjustable magnification (varies with LCD screen size).

Desktop video magnifier that features a high-definition Sony auto-focus camera, high-resolution 24" LCD monitor and text-to-speech feature software (Nuance). Offers 28 viewing modes to optimize contrast and brightness, adjustable magnification from 2.4x to 70x, and a low-profile x-y table with a user-friendly lock mechanism. The monitor can also be used as a display for a computer or connected to an iPad (additional cables required). The screen easily pivots horizontally and vertically to provide the most comfortable viewing position.

High-performance desktop video magnifier, featuring a full HD Sony® camera and selective text-to-speech (OCR). High-definition color and contrast provides crystal clear picture and vibrant colors.

High-performance desktop video magnifier, featuring a Full HD Sony® 1080p camera offering three OCR reading formats (full-page text, full-page picture, and single-line text).

Desktop electronic video magnifier that offers high-definition color and contrast for reading books and magazines, reading and writing letters, managing financial records, viewing color photos, or doing crossword puzzles. Features a high-definition camera, high-definition LCD screen that easily pivots horizontally and vertically to provide the most comfortable viewing position, simple, easy-to-use tactile controls, 2.4x to 73.2x magnification, depending on screen size and zoom table selected, adjustable viewing modes, and an x-y table with a user-friendly lock mechanism for smooth continuous reading.

Flexible full-color, auto-focus desktop magnifier with 7 viewing modes and 2.4x to 77x adjustable magnification (varies with LCD screen size). The monitor also offers a split-screen mode to allow users to view magnified images and the computer simultaneously. Screen pivots, tilts and swivels in all directions.

Video magnifier with full high-definition camera, simple, easy-to-use tactile controls, a 2.4x to 73.2x (depending on screen size and zoom table selected), and an x-y table with a user-friendly lock mechanism for smooth continuous reading. Computer compatible for easy toggling between the video magnifier and computer (additional hardware may be required).

Small lightweight portable magnifier with a 2.8" TFT screen and three easy top-access buttons identified with high-contrast icons. Offers three discrete levels of magnification of approximately approx. 3x, 4.5x and 6.5x full range of color and color-select options. A freeze frame mode allows for storage and image manipulation.

Mobile and portable, the handheld video magnifier with a 3.4" diagonal screen and four viewing modes: black on white, white on black and color, yellow/black. Offers 3 levels of magnification: 3x, 4.5x, and 6x and image display in real image (true colors), contrast enhancement of black on white, white on black and black on yellow.

Portable, handheld video magnifier with a 4.3" high-definition TFT LCD screen. Provides time and date information, has an automatic shut-off feature after 5 minutes of non-use to save battery power, and 5 contrast modes so users can customize the colors of the text and backgrounds to their individual needs. Magnification powers range from 4x to 12x and include the middle range powers of 5x, 6x, 8x, and 10x. Has a 4GB SD card that stores photos, which are downloadable to a PC or Mac computer through the included USB connection. When connected to a PC, a live image can also be seen on a computer monitor.

Portable video magnifier that combines the ONYX portable camera with USB connectivity plus Freedom Scientific"s MAGic® screen magnification software with speech. Features EyeMerge software which allows user to switch back and forth between magnified PC images and magnified camera views in any of three viewing modes: distance views, document views, and self views. Comes in choice of a swing arm or flex arm.

Small, portable, handheld video magnifier with a 4" screen and a magnification range of 4.5x to 9x. Has two full-color modes a