reflective material for back of lcd panel free sample

Transmissive LCD is the most common LCD screen, which requires a backlight as the light source and there is no reflective film at the back of the LCD screen.

Advantage: we can see the graphic and character on the screen very clearly if there is only little light. It is such a mature and cheap technology that 90% of LCD screens in the market are transmissive LCD display.

Reflective LCD is the cheapest LCD screen because there is no backlight, which uses light from outside as the light source, such as sunshine or lamplight and there is a reflective film at the back of the LCD screen.

Advantage: we can see it very clear if we are under the sun or there is a strong outside light. We can see it for a very long time and our eyes never get hurt, just like reading a book or magazine because we use natural light.

Transflective LCD is the best and most expensive LCD screen, which has a semi-reflective film at the back of the LCD screen. The front light can’t go through the semi-reflective film, but the backlight can go through it. Like sunglasses.

Advantage: it has the advantages of both transmissive LCD and reflective LCD. We not only can see it very clearly in the outdoor like the reflective LCD, but also can see it vividly when we are in a dark place like a transmissive LCD. We see the transflective LCD in the front as the reflective LCD because it can reflect the sunshine, but the LED backlight panel can also supply the light which can penetrate the semi-reflective film at the back of LCD screen.

See Permanently Germ-Free Touch Screen Monitors below. Impact Display Solutions specializes in developing customized display solutions to our clients’ exact specifications. Our design and engineering teams have the technical skill and experience to bring your LCD display plans to fruition. No matter what LCD panel types you need (customized or

Impact Display Solutions is a distributor of over 20 lines of touch screen manufacturers. Whether you need standard resistive and capacitive touch screens or have specialized requirements, we have your solution. Talk to our team about your specific application, such as use with gloves, rugged environments, clean rooms and more. Because we have the latest touch technologies including IR, SAW, and multi touch solutions, we are your one-stop-shop for the LCD touch screen monitor products you need. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of unconventional options include:

PIT technology is a patented multi-touch technology. Based on the traditional infrared touch technology and the theory of total internal reflection (TIR), placing the infrared emission diode and reception diode on the lower surface of glass, the infrared beams generated by emission diodes are reflected through a prism light-guide specially designed and transmit across the front glass surface. Compared to traditional infrared touch technology, PIT touch screen has slimmer bezel, lower elevated height, and better multi-touch experience. Impact Display Solutions PIT touch screens have Win8 certification. PIT touch screens support multi-touch capability, allowing more people to touch the screen simultaneously. That allows users to have a better interactive experience. Compared to traditional infrared touch screen, 0.5mm ultralow elevated height enables PIT touch screen recognize human touch very accurately. Ultra-narrow bezel allows near-true flat appearance (as the touch transducers are placed under the screen). Protection performance enhancements are optional: waterproof or vandal-resistant.

With 4 mm and sometimes up to 6mm protection cover glass, rated IK09 which means they are protected against 10 joules impact (equivalent to impact of 5kg mass dropped from 200 mm above impacted surface). The IK rating scale identifies the ability of an enclosure to resist impact energy levels measured in joules.

As we all know, the biggest advantage of projected capacitive touch screens over other touch screen technologies is in the ease of implementation of feather-touch & multi-touch for gestures, but feather-style touching can lead to unintended activations in conventional projected capacitive touch screens. Adding force sensing overcomes that weakness of PCAPs. Force Sensing Touch Screens implement unintended touch rejection by ‘brushing off’ past accidents and it takes into account finger repositioning before selection. Force-sensing touch screen also enables new hand moves and menu-bringing features you can add to your product to enhance user experience.

Based on proven SAW touch technology, Impact Display Solutions has the capability of offering curved SAW touch screens in sizes of 21.5”, 27”, 32”, 35”, 42”. Furthermore, curved SAW touchscreens inherit and enjoy the benefits of SAW technology such as high reliability, protracted durability, sharp image clarity and vandal proofing. It’s the ideal touch solution for gaming and interactive kiosks.

So many applications demand a bright, vibrant, highly visible display in sun lit conditions. We address the need for bright displays through variety of innovative methods to enhance color, contrast, and brightness to maximize the clarity and impact of your message in very bright conditions. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this area. Examples of unconventional options include:

Impact Display Solutions has extensive experience supporting projects in some of the harshest environments. Whether you are dealing with extreme temperatures, wet, oily or dirty conditions we have LCD panel types that will work for you.  We can create shock, vibration and impact resistant solutions. We are experienced with Mil Spec standards and can meet your engineering specifications. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of cover options include (stronger glass substrates in order of toughness):

Optical bonding can increase the brightness and contrast of a display. Typically, there are air gaps between the layers of the completed LCD assembly including the substrate, cover glass and touch screen. Optical bonding can be employed to strengthen the assembly and in most cases, to improve the overall brightness, contrast ratio and readability by mitigating the light reflection between the layers. We offer variety of bonding solutions to meet your LCD touch screen monitor requirements. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of options include:

When you need to increase readability (especially in direct sunlight) by eliminating air gap between LCD and touch screen or protective lens, or both, Impact effectively achieves that goal with optical clear adhesive (OCA) lamination process. Dry bonding with OCA is an inexpensive bonding method with a reliable track record.

Performed in the U.S., Impact uses UV-curing process for optical bonding that involves no heat with a unique patented non-optical silicone OCR bonding material (urethane acrylate) to be brought into a gel state in a Class 100 environment. Wet bonding ensures superior quality over infrared/IR curing technique and solves any delamination concerns for customers compared to dry-bonding. The following options are available:

Mesh EMI Shielding (with woven mesh optimized for displays with silver busbar termination, non-glare or hard-coated laminated polycarbonate, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, or 4.0 mm, max size 500x660 mm)

12-15 ohms ITO-Glass EMI Shielding (12-15 ohms per sq indium tin oxide =ITO coated glass, 89% light transmission, 1.1 mm plain float glass, anti-reflective options, max size 550x850 mm)

Performed in the U.S., Impact uses IR-curing process for optical bonding that involves infrared heat to bring optical silicone OCR material to gel state. Used to optically-bond touch screens of your choice or variety of lenses similar to options for UV curing listed above but excluding Micromesh option.

To optimize image quality in all situations, we can complete an analysis of your specifications and project environment and, if needed, provide AR/AG solutions. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of options include:

Its brasion resistance rating: the coating shall be subjected to a 20 rub eraser abrasion resistance test and meet the requirements referenced in paragraph 4.5.10 of MIL-C-675C for sleeking at the area of abrasion.

For use with your own computer, media player, or video source, Impact can deliver completed closed frame monitor designs, or simply open frame display panels of virtually any size specialized for medical, gaming, military, industrial automation and more. Unique customizations are available upon request. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of options include:

For example, our 21.5” IP55/65-rated dust-proof & water-proof product with VGA & DVI inputs makes the monitor suitable for cleaning in medical environment

Because Impact specializes in LCDs, touch screens, computer motherboards, and value-added enhancements & assemblies, we are able to put all those products into convenient “all-in-ones” / AIOs, which include enclosures with either desktop mounts or backside VESA mounts. Click HERE for list of standard models of 15.6” to 21.5” diagonal, which consist of HD LCD, PCAP touch screen, internal computer motherboard, memory, and other components that encompass full computer functionality with convenient use interface. Please contact us to modify a standard model or make a custom-made AIO product from ground up.

Many environments, such as aircraft and the medical industry are susceptible to the effects of electro-magnetic interference. We engineer a variety of solutions for EMI mitigation, to help reduce this type of interference. Don’t miss out on the new products based on latest technological advances in this field. Examples of options include:

While many standard displays are rated for -30C already, both displays and computer motherboards can be operational all the way at -40C with optional heaters. Heaters may be controlled via manual adjustment or automatically when paired with thermistors.

In the reflective mode, ambient light is used to illuminate the display. This is achieved by combining a reflector with the rear polarizer. It works best in an outdoor or well-lighted office environment.

Transflective LCDs are a mixture of the reflective and transmissive types, with the rear polarizer having partial reflectivity. They are combined with a backlight for use in all types of lighting conditions. The backlight can be left off where there is sufficient outside lighting, conserving power. In darker environments, the backlight is turned on to provide a bright display. Transflective LCDs will not “wash out” when operated in direct sunlight.

Transflector bonded to the rear polarizer reflects light fromfrontas well as enabling lights to pass through the back. Used with backlight off in bright light and with it on in low light to reduce power consumption.

Transmissive LCDs have a transparent rear polarizer and do not reflect ambient light. They require a backlight to be visible. They work best in low light conditions with the backlight on continuously.

AR glass has a hard coating that withstands tempering to enhance safety and security. This makes it perfect for upscale applications where the general public or children may be close to the glass.  When people are pressing up against the glass, for example, in outdoor applications such as zoos, this is a crucial feature to ensure the glass is strong enough to keep people safe. Because it’s anti-reflective, viewers are able to maintain more of a distance from the exhibits to see clearly, so they have the ability to stand back from the glass. It’s the high light transmission combined with the reduced reflection that makes the Anti-Reflective Glass a truly magical piece of glass. This combination will eliminate the sight inhibiting reflections from the glass, allowing the potential customer to see the showcased item with crystal clear clarity.

For stretchable displays, substrate technology is required to move beyond the conventional realm of rigid metals and ceramics. Hence, studies on polymer substrates are currently underway. Polymer substrates for displays must possess some optical and thermal properties, such as glass like transmittance (> 85%) and low constant of thermal expansion (CTE) [84, 85]. Most of all, it is important that the substrates have non-rigid mechanical properties, including elasticity.

Soft elastomeric substrates can be a good option for stretchable displays. However, these materials are not easy to handle due to their low-dimensional stability, so a careful and delicate process is required during their fabrication or usage. Hence, prior to developing stretchable displays, flexible displays were studied using transparent and flexible polymers with relatively large dimensional stability in comparison to elastomers. PET is a typical polymer substrate for flexible displays due to its outstanding flexibility (can be bent over a 1-in diameter 1000 times), affordable price, high transparency (> 85%), and chemical resistance [84, 86, 87]. Many flexible displays use PET for substrates [18, 35] (Fig. 12a, b). However, PET exhibits relatively large CTEs in comparison to ceramics and metals because thermoplastic polymers have weak crosslinkings between chains [85]. Hence, obtaining lower CTEs for improved thermal stability has been an issue. For example, poly amide-imide thermoplastic film with a lower CTE (~ 4 ppm/ °C) is obtained by changing the ratio of two isomeric monomers without losing the high transmittance [85] (Fig. 12c).

(Figure reproduced from a [18], Copyright 2006, Society for Information Display; b [35], Copyright 2019, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim; c [85], Copyright 2018, The Author(s); d [90], Copyright 2015, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim; e [91], Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society)

Polymeric substrates for stretchable displays. a Flexible E-paper display(QR-LPD®) fabricated on PET substrate. b Flexible electrochromic display on ITO coated PET substrate during dynamic bending test. c Picture of a poly amide-imide film with low CTE(~ 4 ppm/ °C) and high transparency. d Schematic structure of photonic crystal fiber and color change at given strain. Polystyrene particles are coated on PDMS core. e Stretchable electrochromic device fabricated on polyurethane(PU) substrate

As stretchable displays have started to attract the attention of the industrial world due to their potential applicability to human–machine interfaces, researchers have tried to apply established display technologies to stretchable materials. However, polymeric substrates for flexible displays have excessive Young’s moduli precluding applications to stretchable displays (GPa scale; typically 5 GPa for PET). New polymers are now needed for stretchable displays, and several transparent elastomers have been proposed as strong candidate substitutes for conventional thermoplastic substrates. PDMS has many favorable properties, such as biocompatibility, transparency, high electrical resistivity (~ 2.9 × 1014 Ω cm) and low Young’s modulus (~ 1 MPa) [88, 89]. It is therefore widely used in electronics, microfluidics and many other fields. Another candidate is polyurethane (PU), which has a low Young’s modulus (~ 5 MPa), large tear strength and abrasion resistance, which is required for devices that are frequently exposed to scratches or impact [89]. Both elastomers have been used as substrates for stretchable displays [90, 91] (Fig. 12d, e). However, there are still challenges to be addressed before these attractive polymers can be used as substrates for stretchable displays. For example, PDMS and PU exhibit larger CTE values (typically about 480 ppm/ °C for PDMS, 90–100 ppm/ °C for PU) even compared to PET. More importantly, the best way to secure sufficient dimensional stability for actual devices, despite their low elastic modulus, is not well understood. Trials to solve such issues will be required before we can use stretchable displays in practical applications.

Electrochromic displays require electrodes that can exchange electrons, thus enabling electrochemical reactions. However, transparent electrodes, such as conventional ITO/PET complexes, are not suitable for stretchable displays because they can fail even under small strains. Thus, there have been some studies on how to fabricate material that is transparent and has sufficient electrical conductivity. Such properties have been achieved using silver nanowires (AgNWs) (Fig. 13a) embedded in the surface layer of polymers. Stretchable, transparent composites were synthesized with an AgNW network and crosslinked poly(acrylate) matrix [92]. This composite has a surface conductance and transparency comparable to that of ITO. The sheet resistance of the composite increased 2.3 times at 50% strain compared to its normal state (Fig. 13b) [92]. Furthermore, composites with conductive filler materials like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [93], elastic conductors and metal nanoparticles can be exploited for stretchable electrodes with tensile strength over 100%. However, these materials have a rather high sheet resistance, of 100–1000 Ohm/sq at 80% optical transmittance. The sheet resistance, transmittance, and stretchability of the composite electrodes was compared to various conducting materials such as AgNWs, silver coating, single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene, and ITO. The normalized resistance increased with the applied strain due to geometric changes during stretching (Fig. 13di). The transmittance of the material decreases with the sheet resistance (Fig. 13dii) [92].

Stretchable electrodes and structure for stretchable electrochromic displays. a A SEM image of the AgNWs on a glass substrate. b Stretchability of a AgNW electrode is demonstrated with a light-emitting diode. c Electrical and optical properties of stretchable electrodes. (i) Normalized resistance as a function of applied strain. (ii) Transmittance versus sheet resistance. d (i) Possible structure of the stretchable electrochromic device. (ii) An example with AgNW/PDMS and WO3. e Patterned electrochromic device in bleached and colored states at 0 and 50% strain

Transparency and conductivity are both important for the top electrode of the stretchable display. Thus, it is possible to construct a structure with electrochromic materials sandwiched between two electrodes with sufficient transparency, conductivity, and mechanical properties (Fig. 13d). There have been some cases in which electrochromic molecules were combined with stretchable substrates [94, 95]. Stretchable electrochromic devices based on an AgNW/PDMS elastic conductor have been reported (Fig. 13dii) with an electrochemically deposited WO3 active layer. Fast coloration (1 s) and bleaching (4 s) times were achieved, and functioning at a 50% stretched state was demonstrated (Fig. 13e).

There is the other system driving stretchable reflective displays that control and display colors by an electric field. Electric field-, rather than electron transport-driven systems have dielectric layers separating two electrodes, like a capacitor. In this case, in which only electric fields are exploited, ionic conductors can replace electrodes, which allows the system to take advantage of ionic conductors. Sun et al. demonstrated the operation of an electroactive device without electrochemical reactions by taking advantage of ionic conductors [96]. Electrochemical reactions are a major concern when ions are exploited in conjunction with applied voltages. The device with capacitor structures is transparent in the visible light range and exhibits electrical actuation with areal stretching when voltages are applied (Fig. 14a).

(Figure reproduced from a, b [96], Copyright 2013, American Association for the Advancement of Science; d, e [96], Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science; f [97], Copyright 2016, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Ionic conductors for stretchable reflective displays. a Transparent ionic conductors are exploited for DEAs without electrochemical reaction. b Performance of hydrogel ionic conductor exhibiting relatively insensitive resistance change upon stretching with a high transparency comparing to other electrodes. c A design for stretchable reflective display with ionic conductors. d A similar structure of electroluminescent display using ionic conductors. e Luminescent behavior of the display under uniaxial stretching. f Patterned luminescent displays showing various colors under a mechanical deformation

Hydrogel ionic conductors have lower sheet resistance and maintain high transmittance with relatively insensitive resistance changes under stretching in comparison to other electrodes, such as AgNWs, SWNTs, ITO and graphene (Fig. 14b). Also, ionic conductors are highly stretchable, easy to make and inexpensive, which is important for the fabrication of commercial stretchable displays. Thus, a design for stretchable reflective displays using ionic conductors has been proposed (Fig. 14c). By introducing colorants such as pigments or mechanochromic materials between the transparent dielectric elastomer, a colored dielectric layer can be fabricated. Subsequently, the layer is sandwiched between two transparent ionic conductors with a stretchable substrate. Even though the design seems feasible for stretchable reflective displays, no demonstrations have yet been reported during the current development phase of reflective displays, which has proven slower than the development phase of emissive displays. A similar design using electroluminescent materials was presented for stretchable emissive displays by Larson et al. (Fig. 14d) [97]. The display consists of an electroluminescent dielectric layer that is fabricated by mixing zinc sulfide phosphor into EcoFlex. The dielectric layer is then sandwiched between two ionic conductors and operated by applying a voltage, and emits white light continuously even under uniaxial stretching to over 395% strain (Fig. 14e). Also, by using a patterning technique, stretchable multicolor displays have been demonstrated under mechanical deformation (Fig. 14f) [98]. In the same manner, reflective materials that are used in electrophoretic, electrokinetic and electromechanical color change systems can be used in conjunction with ionic conductors for stretchable reflective displays.

All stretchable displays are basically composites of soft materials. Being similar to other stretchable emissive displays, stretchable reflective displays are composed of top/bottom substrates, two electrodes and a display working layer. Such components are arranged vertically in most displays, so layer-to-layer processes are typical fabrication methods [99] (Fig. 15a). Bottom substrates are prepared first, followed by a planarization process if required. Then, the lower electrode and display layer, upper electrode and top substrate are laminated one by one. Roll-to-roll manufacturing processes have been used to product displays more efficiently. This process has high throughput, and has already been adopted for flexible reflective displays [18] (Fig. 15b). In both processes mentioned, separating each pixel is important. Photolithography can be used to pattern the grid for each pixel [100] (Fig. 15c). Also there are spacers in the display layer, to separate each pixel. These spacers are connected to both upper/lower patterned electrodes, completely closing each pixel [101] (Fig. 15d). Here, the problem is that such connections between different materials (i.e., between substrates, electrodes, display layers or spacers) can be vulnerable to mechanical failure or invasion by impurities when the display is stretched.

(Figure reproduced from a [99], Copyright 2006, Society for Information Display; b [18], Copyright 2006, Society for Information Display; c [101], Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society; d [101], Copyright 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd)

Display fabrication processes and pixel structures. a Schematic process of layer-to-layer fabrication of the reflective display, reproduced with permission. b Roll-to-roll process for liquid powder display fabrication. c ITO grid patterned by lithography. d Structure of electrophoretic display with spacers

When stretched simultaneously, materials with different moduli cause non-uniform stress fields. Hence, when different materials are adhered to make a stretchable display, tight adhesion is necessary to prevent mechanical failure. In stretchable displays, most structural materials are elastomers, so adhesion between elastomers and other materials is of paramount importance. The most common way to adhere two different polymers is to use chemical linkages. In Fig. 16a, conductive PEDOT:PSS and PDMS are chemically linked by a poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) layer [102]. Such chemical linkages can be applied to many other polymer/polymer junctions. Simply mixing two materials is another common method for adhesion. Many stretchable electrodes are produced in this way, dispersing nanomaterials like CNTs or AgNWs into non-cured elastomers. Nanomaterials tend to aggregate with each other due to the van der Waals force. In Fig. 16b, aggregated CNTs are equally dispersed and embedded into PDMS by flow stress, forming electrical networks between CNTs [103]. Another type of adhesion is between elastomers and hydrogels. Hydrogels with salts can act as ionic conductors, which are transparent and stretchable. In this case, nanoparticles can be used to absorb chains from both the elastomer and hydrogel, linking them mechanically. In Fig. 16c, adhesion between very high bond (VHB) acrylic elastomer and PAAm hydrogel is reinforced by the mechanical linkages between silica nanoparticles [104].

(Figure reproduced from a [102], Copyright 2017, The Author(s); b [103], Copyright 2014, The Author; c [104], Copyright 2016, The Royal Society of Chemistry; d [105], Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society)

Adhesion and sealing issues. a PEDOT: PSS and PDMS is chemically linked by poly ethyleneglycol diacrylate (PEGDA). b CNT dispersion into PDMS by flow stress. c (i) Bilayer of VHB 4910 (3 M) elastomer and hydrogel with silica nanoparticles, before and after debond. (ii) Nanoparticles absorb chains between hydrogel and elastomer. (iii) Debond energies between VHB elastomer and various hydrogels are increased by silica nanoparticles. d water permeability and elastic modulus of variety of materials

Tight adhesion at inner interfaces is important for mechanical stability. Similarly, tight sealing at the external surface of a device is also very important for chemical stability. To prohibit molecules from passing through, surface materials should have low permeability to water, oxygen and any other materials. For example, hydrogel can be coated with butyl rubber to prevent water from evaporating [105]. Such coatings can protect entire displays from impurities, because butyl rubber has much lower water and oxygen permeability than typical PDMS and many of other elastomers [106]. Elastomers with low elastic moduli and low permeability should be selected as external coating materials to prevent the infiltration of impurities [105], and reduce the risk of damage to the stretchable reflective display (Fig. 16d).

Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, digital clocks, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs, which can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider color gamut, virtually infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two glass panels; the thickness of the panels increases with size but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and potentially lower power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and there is no backlight). OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given display size due to the very expensive electroluminescent materials or phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs suffer from screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED displays, whereas LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology required to recycle LCDs is not yet widespread. Attempts to maintain the competitiveness of LCDs are quantum dot displays, marketed as SUHD, QLED or Triluminos, which are displays with blue LED backlighting and a Quantum-dot enhancement film (QDEF) that converts part of the blue light into red and green, offering similar performance to an OLED display at a lower price, but the quantum dot layer that gives these displays their characteristics can not yet be recycled.

Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than a CRT can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented.Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.

Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

LCDs, along with OLED displays, are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:

Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.

The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry.IEEE History Center.Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.

In 1888,Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421–441 (1888)).Otto Lehmann published his work "Flüssige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers.

In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid crystal.

In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first operational liquid-crystal display based on what he called the George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of FameIEEE Milestone.

In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK"s Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody"s team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.

In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio"s "Casiotron". Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,

In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,

The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko"s R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.Citizen Watch,TFT LCD.computer monitors and LCD televisions.3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.compact, full-color LCD projector.

In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.

Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.South Korea and Taiwan,

In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer,transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.

In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets.

Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plateinverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.

EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn"t expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.

WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.

RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.

Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.

Mini-LED: Backlighting with Mini-LEDs can support over a thousand of Full-area Local Area Dimming (FLAD) zones. This allows deeper blacks and higher contrast ratio.MicroLED.)

Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD, full-area local area dimming).

The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),

Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images at flashing video speeds using very low power electronics in combination with LED based backlight technologies, LCD technology has become the dominant display technology for products such as televisions, desktop monitors, notebooks, tablets, smartphones and mobile phones. Although competing OLED technology is pushed to the market, such OLED displays do not feature the HDR capabilities like LCDs in combination with 2D LED backlight technologies have, reason why the annual market of such LCD-based products is still growing faster (in volume) than OLED-based products while the efficiency of LCDs (and products like portable computers, mobile phones and televisions) may even be further improved by preventing the light to be absorbed in the colour filters of the LCD.

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That"s three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.

The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displaysGame Boyactive-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage as discovered by Peter J. Wild in 1972,

STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.

Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.

Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.

Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90-degrees twisted LC layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the light"s path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode. IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

In 2015 LG Display announced the implementation of a new technology called M+ which is the addition of white subpixel along with the regular RGB dots in their IPS panel technology.

Most of the new M+ technology was employed on 4K TV sets which led to a controversy after tests showed that the addition of a white sub pixel replacing the traditional RGB structure would reduce the resolution by around 25%. This means that a 4K TV cannot display the full UHD TV standard. The media and internet users later called this "RGBW" TVs because of the white sub pixel. Although LG Display has developed this technology for use in notebook display, outdoor and smartphones, it became more popular in the TV market because the announced 4K UHD resolution but still being incapable of achieving true UHD resolution defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels with 8-bit color. This negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit fuzzier, which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC monitor.

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers" policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.ISO 13406-2 standard.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.

Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs that share s