lcd screen lifespan factory

How long will your LED display last? In nearly every industry, from retail businesses to concert halls to corporate centers, decision makers need to evaluate the return on investment (ROI) of their LED signage. In most cases, potential buyers go straight to the obvious place: the LED manufacturer’s spec sheet. The industry standard for LED lifespan is 100,000 hours, or about 10 years, and most people assume that’s how long their display will last. But it’s not quite that simple.

The 100,000-hour figure assumes that every diode will be running at full brightness, consistently — which, on an LED screen, is virtually never the case. The lifespan figure can also be misleading because it indicates when a diode degrades to half-brightness, not completely dark. Many other variables affect an LED display’s lifespan; you can’t rely solely on the number on the diode spec sheet.

“The reality is, your screen can often last significantly longer than 100,000 hours,” says Kevin Izatt, a senior product manager in Samsung’s Display division. “We’ve had displays that have been up for 15-plus years with more than adequate brightness. Because the diode is actually only one factor in the lifespan of your LED display.”

The quality of your display’s power supply — and how hard it drives the diodes — can have a significant impact on your screen’s lifespan. The other components being powered, such as fans and electrical components, have their own lifespans as well, which are also impacted by the power supply.

“Fans are mechanical; they break down,” explains Izatt. “And similar to your computer, the electrical components don’t last forever. Together, these factors all contribute to the lifespan of an LED display. Looking at just the diode lifespan doesn’t give you the complete story — almost always, another part will go out first.”

“Something like airflow is very important,” says Izatt. “You need a screen that has good cooling, and a design that allows heat to flow out of the back through vents.”

To help businesses transition from LCD to longer-lasting LED signage, Samsung has launched a trade-in program. Samsung will come on site to remove your existing display and provide a discount on a new LED bundle kit.

Traded-in LCD displays that are still operating will be refurbished and resold, and your business will receive a cash rebate. Nonworking displays will be recycled and their parts reused.

You can’t rely on the number on the diode spec sheet; the lifespan of your LED display depends on many more factors. “Overall quality has a tremendous impact on the life of the display that diode specs just don’t take into account,” says Izatt. Your best bet is to look at the purchase holistically and invest in a top-tier product.

As you plan your LED signage rollout — or an upgrade — learn how to configure and tailor your screens’ real-time messaging with an integrated CMS in thisfree guide. And if you haven’t decided what kind of display is best suited to your current project, compare all ofSamsung’s LED displays.

• Perform highly diversified duties to install and maintain electrical apparatus on production machines and any other facility equipment (Screen Print, Punch Press, Steel Rule Die, Automated Machines, Turret, Laser Cutting Machines, etc.).

• Perform highly diversified duties to install and maintain electrical apparatus on production machines and any other facility equipment (Screen Print, Punch Press, Steel Rule Die, Automated Machines, Turret, Laser Cutting Machines, etc.).

Perhaps you’ve wondered how long a digital display lasts. It’s a great question. One quick search on Google will tell you that an LCD panel has a lifespan of about 60,000 hours, which is equivalent to almost seven years.

Of course, LCDs aren’t the only kind of displays. You also have LED, OLED, QLED, ELD, PDP, and MicroLED, plus many other variations. Obviously, that 7-year estimation will not apply across the board. For the sake of ease, let’s just focus on some of the common types of displays that most of us are familiar with.

Here’s some LCD alphabet soup: There are LED LCD displays, CFFL LCD displays, LED displays, and more. With all these acronyms, it can get a bit confusing. What"s important to note is whether or not the display uses an LCD panel, and how the LCD panel is illuminated. You can read more about thedifferences between types of LCD and LED signage, but these are the most common types:

LCD displaysgenerate images and colors via a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panel, which is not self-emitting and requires an external light source to illuminate the image, typically an LED backlight. Their full name "LED-backlit LCD display" is commonly shortened to "LED displays", which is why they"re often confused with the true LED displays we"ve identified above.

Unfortunately, LED backlights used in LCD displays burn out over time. If used at high or maximum brightness, which is necessary for outdoor applications,an LED backlight will last between 40,000 to 60,000 hours. Or, about 4.5 to 7 years.

OLED stands for Organic Light Emitting Diode. OLED displays differ from common LCD displays in that their pixels are self-illuminating. In other words, there is no LED backlight required to illuminate the the display image; everything occurs within the OLED pixels themselves. According to onearticle from the US Department of Energy,OLED screens have a life expectancy of about 40,000 hours at 25% brightness, and 10,000 hours at full brightness. That equates to about 1 to 4.5 years, which is a much shorter (albeit, brilliant) lifetime than an LCD display.

Perhaps you noticed that the acronym QLED closely resembles the acronym OLED. This is not accidental. QLED is basically Samsung’s original design built to compete with OLED technology. However, the two are not the same. QLED stands for Quantum Light Emitting Diode. While QLED is similar to a regular LED design, it in fact differs by using nanoparticles called “Quantum dots” to achieve its unique brightness and color. Samsung approximates that the lifespan ofQLED panels are likely to last 7-10 years. After that, a user is likely to notice traces of degradation.

MicroLED is an emerging display technology, consisting of small LEDs in tiny arrays within each pixel. This technology goes beyond the offerings of the formerly frontrunning OLEDs, with much darker blacks and more radiant contrast levels. And, unlike OLEDs, MicroLEDs are not organic. They are not as subject to burn-in, and thus, have a longer lifespan than OLEDs. However, they are significantly more expensive - so much, in fact, that they aren’t considered a viable option for the majority of consumers.According to Samsung, the lifespan of its MicroLED panels should last about 100,000 hours, or, roughly 11 years.

PDP stands for Plasma Display Panel, and it refers to displays that use small cells full of plasma. The atoms within the plasma emit light upon being charged by electricity. While PDP is generally considered to offer better colors than LCDs, they consume a lot more power and usually cannot be battery-operated.The average lifespan of the newest generation of PDPs is approximated to be 100,000 hours, or 11 years of continual use.

In some ways,reflective LCD panelsoperate similarly to other LCDs, only they have one key difference - they do not require a backlight. Instead, they rely on ambient light (or sunlight) in order to produce images. This opens the door to some groundbreaking possibilities. The first (and most appreciable) is low power consumption. Reflective displays use up to 95% less energy. Not bad - especially in a world that is continually looking for new ways to go green. Take into consideration the financial implications of this. Lower power means less money spent on operating costs.

Being that reflective displays do not require a backlight (a component that is particularly subject to degradation), and since they do not generate as much heat, it is safe to say that the lifespan of these displays should far exceed that of backlit LCD panels (which was 7 years at the high end). However, being that thisinnovative technologyis relatively new, its actual lifespan is therefore more difficult to estimate -- simply because it has yet to be reached.

One company at the front lines of this research isAzumo. Azumo has created a light guide that laminates to the front of a display. It requires 90% less energy than the backlight of a traditional LCD display. This greatly improves the problem of low light visibility otherwise encountered, and keeps reflective displays in the same low energy consumption ballpark. One issue, however, is that Azumo currently only offers its light guides for smaller-sized units. If you happen to want this feature applied to a display that is over 10” diagonally, then you’re still on the search for a solution.

Other “pioneer companies” are at the frontier of this research as well, and many are already innovating new solutions to increase the viability of reflective technology - both in their low light visibility and in the screen sizes they are available in. Due to the huge potential offered by reflective technology, it is fair to assume that we will see even greater enhancements to it in the very near future.

One other factor to consider regarding reflective technology is its cost. That reflective layer is more costly to manufacture than many of the backlights it replaces, creating a seemingly greater upfront cost for those who are interested in investing in energy-efficient signage. However, these initial price points are quickly justified as buyers will recognize the significantly lower operating costs and increased longevity (not even including replacement costs of other “expired” displays) that comes with their purchase of reflective display signage. If a backlit LCD panel only lasts 7 years, for example, you’ll have paid for that LCD twice in the period of ten years. A very valid question arises… is that “cheaper” backlight really cheaper? Probably not. It only feels that way at first.

And when it comes to the cost of deployment, not are only are there the initial costs of the digital signage screen, networking, installation, software management and developing content, but there can be a lot of hidden costs too: Repair, maintenance and replacing screens are often areas not thought about during initial proposals for projects, but these costs can soon mount up.

All screens, whether commercial grade or consumer grade will have a limited lifespan. While the old CRT TVs could often to run for decades (well my trusty portable did, anyway) before expiring, the same cannot be said for modern LCDs and plasmas.

The lifespan of a modern flatscreen is measured by a half-life, when the screen’s dims to half its original brightness. With LCDs, while the actually display itself could perhaps run for decades, the TV’s half-life is governed by the backlight. And depending on what system provides the backlight (LEDs seem to have the longest life), a typical LCD display will last between 30,000-80,000 hours before the screen reaches its half-life, with commercial grade screens at the higher end.

Plasmas have less longevity with the plasma/gases powering the image decaying over time, providing a half-life perhaps half of that of LCDs, which is one of the reasons that plasmas are utilized less than LCDs for digital signage.

Unlike consumer TVs, which operate for a limited period each day, depending on how much programming we watch, digital signage screens are typically left on 24 hours a day. And unlike consumer TVs, which operate in the warmth and comfort of our homes, the locations where digital signage has to operate can affect life-span too.

All screens are designed to operate under set parameters. Variable temperatures, pollution, bright light, exposure to the elements and the shock of impacts, all have a dramatic effect on a screen’s life, severely shortening the intended life-span; however, by minimizing these variables and keeping the screen as near to the manufacturers optimum conditions as possible will ensure you get the most out of your screen; saving money in the regularity a screen has to be replaced.

LCD enclosures are commonly used for outdoor digital signage and information screens in drafty concourses and manufacturing facilities as they weatherproofing and a ruggedness essential in these conditions; however, LCD enclosures also contain environmental systems such as air-filters, cooling fans, heaters (in cold areas), anti-glare screens—all ensuring the internal conditions of the LCD enclosure are the optimum for a screen to operate in, helping to the maximum the life-span of the screen, and ultimately saving money.

Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky and less energy-efficient cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. The phosphors used in CRTs make them vulnerable to image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs do not have this weakness, but are still susceptible to image persistence.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented.Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.

Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

LCDs are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:

Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.

In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid crystal.

In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK"s Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody"s team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.

In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio"s "Casiotron". Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,

In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,

The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko"s R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.Citizen Watch,TFT LCD.computer monitors and LCD televisions.3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.compact, full-color LCD projector.

In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.

Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.South Korea and Taiwan,

In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer,

In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets.

Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plateinverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.

EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn"t expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.

WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.

RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.

Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.

Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD, full-area local area dimming).

The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That"s three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.

The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displaysGame Boyactive-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

A comparison between a blank passive-matrix display (top) and a blank active-matrix display (bottom). A passive-matrix display can be identified when the blank background is more grey in appearance than the crisper active-matrix display, fog appears on all edges of the screen, and while pictures appear to be fading on the screen.

STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.

Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.

Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.

Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode. IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers" policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.ISO 13406-2 standard.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.

Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.

Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry. Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain angles.

Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.

Color performance: There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors that can be displayed, and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color range is divided. Color gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the professional level. Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown on the screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or below the range of a certain specification.white point and gamma correction, which describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed relative to white.

Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.

Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).

No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.

LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.

As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.

Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle. Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.

As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display,CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT"s phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.

Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the image either not to fill the screen (letterboxed display), or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.

Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262144 (218) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.

Input lag, because the LCD"s A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.

Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of use. A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while a dead one will always remain black.

In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.

Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.

The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) as an etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF3 is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming. A report in Geophysical Research Letters suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF3 was not in widespread use at the time, it was not made part of the Kyoto Protocols and has been deemed "the missing greenhouse gas".

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The raw materials that are extracted for use in a television come from many different sources, which makes the beginning of the television’s life cycle one that starts at many different places. One of the main types of materials used in televisions are plastics, namely thermoplastics such as polyethylene. Thermoplastics like polyethylene are used because they can be melted down and remolded repeatedly, which is part of the process in making the exterior casing of a television. Polyethylene is made from the polymerization of ethylene. Ethylene is produced from the cracking of ethane gas, which can be separated from natural gas. When the polyethylene is ready, it is molded into the specific shape that is required to encase a television, and is then set into that shape by using a thermoset. The thermoset is used to fix the meltable plastic in the shape that the plastic has been molded in, meaning that once the thermoset is fixed onto the plastic, the plastic cannot be melted again. The fixing of thermosets is necessary for electronic appliances like televisions that produce a significant amount of heat, so that the plastic that encases the television will not melt down. The most common thermoset used in televisions is urea formaldehyde. Urea formaldehyde is made by obtaining urea, a solid crystal, from ammonia gas, and by obtaining formaldehyde from methane gas. The two are then chemically combined to make the resin-like material that is used as a thermoset. Another main material that is used in most television is glass. Glass is the essential material that makes up the screen of a television, and is made from the chemical compound silicon oxide. All these materials are extracted and made in factories spread throughout the world, adding to the complexity of manufacturing televisions.

While plastics and glass are the main materials that make up the exterior of a television, the interior parts of a television are made up of a greater range of materials. Plastics are also used in the interior of a television, but inside of a television are also found gases and minerals. Gases such as argon, neon, and xenon gas fill the television screen for the purpose of projecting colors into the screen, and are made visible by the phosphor coating that coats the inside of a television screen. Glass and lead are also found inside of a television screen. These two materials make up cathode ray tubes, which are the video display components of a television. Other components that are found inside of a television also require thermoplastics like polyethylene, including components such as light valves, which work together with cathode ray tubes to enable the electrons inside to be visible on screen. The main electrical components on the interior of a television require a large amount of silicon; these include components such as the logic board, circuit boards, and capacitors. Once again, these materials are extracted and processed on several different continents. Silicon can be found in many different places, but a large supply comes from California. Meanwhile, many plastics are manufactured in China, while factories in the United States manufacture glass. These materials can be manufactured or extracted in other countries as well, which also helps to make the life cycle of a television a complex and global circle.

Televisions are globally one of the dominant selling products in the technology sector. China is the primary manufacturer, being home to many of the preeminent selling TV companies such as TCL, Skyworth and others that partner with Chinese manufacturers such as Samsung and LG. Although the number of televisions that are produced per year is not a record the public has access to, it is estimated that there are seven-hundred and fifty-nine point three million TV sets connected worldwide in 2018 [14]. The cradle-to-grave of television production has five steps: the acquisition of raw and synthetic materials, the manufacturing process, the distribution and transportation, the use of televisions, and the disposal and recycling [9]. Energy application is present in each of the five stages of the complete life cycle of televisions, specifically the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) model. The entire life cycle of televisions uses and produces energy that is not environmentally safe to human and animal health and the atmosphere. Even though television companies claim to be decreasing the environmental consequences, the immense presence of energy use throughout the cradle-to-grave of television production continue to result in hazardous effects.

The first step of the television life cycle, the acquisition of the materials, produces and uses the largest amount of energy of the steps. The acquiring process of the materials includes obtainment, collection, extraction, combination, and transformation of the raw and synthetic materials. The main materials are plastics, circuits, circuit boards, glass, metals and various materials such as indium-tin oxide and liquid crystal. Plastics make up the exterior pieces and layout of the television, as well as a fewer small pieces inside. Plastic is formed from crude oil or natural gas like fossil fuels, which have to first be mined from the earth’s core and then must be processed before the polymerisation process can be carried out. This process is used to chemically combine carbon monomers in order to form carbon polymers which make up plastic and give it it’s individual properties. Overall, plastics require motion energy and electricity to be mined and chemical energy to turn oil or natural gas into plastic. Circuits make up the various circuit boards along with minor metal or plastic pieces. The circuits are originally made of silicon dioxide, or silica, which must be extracted from the earth’s crust. More modernly, silica is being replaced by quartz by some manufacturing companies. Silica and quartz are both extracted from the earth using electricity and thermal energy through mining and extraction. Silicon dioxide is used in the circuit boards because it is a semiconductor, so it must be processed with drilling or thermal techniques to obtain the desired shape and form. The obtainment of materials for the circuits involves thermal energy and electricity through the multiple steps. Silicon dioxide is also the main component in glass which is made from heating sand or quartz with waste glass and soda ash into a liquid mixture to be molded into the desired solid shape. Thermal energy is the prime energy source in the transformation process of glass, but also the minor electricity source for the silica. The various metals that are found scattered through modern televisions include gold, lead and copper. Each of these metals must be mined and extracted from the earth requiring electricity and thermal energy must be applied in order to change the form into liquid to modify the shape for parts. Liquid crystal that is used in the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panels is found in various mineral forms and must be extracted using electricity. Indium-tin oxide (ITO) is “a scattered and rare element” that is found in the Earth’s crust, but is “challenging to [extract]” [4]. It actually does not exist as an ore itself but it is “mainly produced as a by-product of zinc mining” or lead mining [11]. The zinc and lead are mined using electricity and then using smelting techniques, which apply thermal energy, indium-tin oxide is processed out of the ores. The collection of the materials involves the extensive energy application of the varying types of energy. Once the materials are acquired, the manufacturing stage begins and the precarious energy utilization continues to grow.

The manufacturing phase applies the second most impactful energy use behind the first step, emitting hazardous effects in large, concentrated volumes. The production processes vary by manufacturer, but they generally contain assembly lines, machine tools and technology, automated robots and packaging. The plastic parts found throughout the structure and the inner parts are made using the well-adopted injection molding process. This process uses thermal energy to liquify plastic in order to be injected into the definite molds [5]. After they cool, they must be cut and sized-down to perfection with saws and cleaned manually for safety as well as appeal [5]. This requires electricity to function the saws and kinetic energy in human movements for the manual work [9]. The LCD panels are composed of a variety of substances and materials, the most prominent being indium-tin oxide, liquid crystal and metal pieces [2]. The panels are manually made adding the liquid crystal layer, the ITO layer and a few other metal and glass layers using either adhesives or screws to connect them all together. This process of building the LCDs exerts immense kinetic and mechanical energy by human labor. The glass flat screen for the television must be laser-cut to shape utilizing thermal energy and electricity. All of this electricity and thermal energy that is used in manufacturing requires incredible amounts of coal or fossil fuel consumption. The greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) resulting from the energy application are inordinately unsafe for the Earth in the short and long term. They are destroying our atmosphere which can damage plant life and harm the human and animal health. The manufacturing phase, although it is the second step most in energy consumption and emission, the concentrated levels of emission make it detrimental nonetheless. This stage includes the packaging and loading of the finished television sets in order to be ready for the next step, transportation and distribution worldwide.

TV sets inevitably must be replaced, but disposal techniques are still being experimented in terms of safety, procurement of materials and the energy application, including the effects. If televisions are not recycled and disposed properly, the materials can leak into the ground contaminating clean water systems and the plant life or harm humans who do not disassemble the TVs safely [6]. The best method for dismantling has proven to be to retrace the manufacturing process backwards to disassemble it most cost-effectively and with the most recovery of materials [12]. A comprehensive study by Ardente and Mathieux (2014) initiated an ideal method that consists of five steps to dismantle LCD panels as well as other electronic devices: “reusability, recyclability, recoverability, recycled and use of hazardous substance” [15]. Experiments to retrieve and reuse all of the materials have yet to be successful, but a few of the materials have favorable results including plastics, precious metals, glass and ITO. The basis of the disassembly from LCD panels has the highest efficiency when dismantled and extracted manually rather than mechanically which applies large amounts of kinetic and mechanical energy [1]. The numerous plastic parts are best recycled using two techniques: energy recovery (or thermal recycling) and mechanical recycling (or material recycling) [10]. Energy recovery is incineration of plastic waste to be used as electricity involving kinetic and mechanical energy by manual labor, but mostly uses electricity and thermal energy to incinerate the plastics[10]. Mechanical recycling is plastic waste being recycled into other resources utilizing kinetic or mechanical energy by manual labor as well as potential energy and gravitational energy of the materials [10]. Precious metals and glass both use kinetic, mechanical and thermal energies to be extracted manually, crushed down and then typically sold to be melted down to reform for other products. Indium-tin oxide is the most recycled raw material in LCD panels and can be fully extracted by numerous techniques encompassing leaching [11], sorption [4], and pyrolysis [1]. These each include exposing the LCD panels to varying chemicals, high temperatures and a range of pressures [4]. Overall, the recovery of ITO by means of recycling involves intensive chemical, thermal and pressure energies. This final stage of disposal and recycling of LCD televisions has the most exposure to research and experimenting.