modern full-color flat-panel display screens called a glass cockpit made in chin

A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital) flight instrument displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog dials and gauges.multi-function displays driven by flight management systems, that can be adjusted to display flight information as needed. This simplifies aircraft operation and navigation and allows pilots to focus only on the most pertinent information. They are also popular with airline companies as they usually eliminate the need for a flight engineer, saving costs. In recent

As aircraft displays have modernized, the sensors that feed them have modernized as well. Traditional gyroscopic flight instruments have been replaced by electronic attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS) and air data computers (ADCs), improving reliability and reducing cost and maintenance. GPS receivers are usually integrated into glass cockpits.

Early glass cockpits, found in the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, Boeing 737 Classic, ATR 42, ATR 72 and in the Airbus A300-600 and A310, used electronic flight instrument systems (EFIS) to display attitude and navigational information only, with traditional mechanical gauges retained for airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and engine performance. The Boeing 757 and 767-200/-300 introduced an electronic engine-indicating and crew-alerting system (EICAS) for monitoring engine performance while retaining mechanical gauges for airspeed, altitude and vertical speed.

Later glass cockpits, found in the Boeing 737NG, 747-400, 767-400, 777, Airbus A320, later Airbuses, Ilyushin Il-96 and Tupolev Tu-204 have completely replaced the mechanical gauges and warning lights in previous generations of aircraft. While glass cockpit-equipped aircraft throughout the late 20th century still retained analog altimeters, attitude, and airspeed indicators as standby instruments in case the EFIS displays failed, more modern aircraft have increasingly been using digital standby instruments as well, such as the integrated standby instrument system.

Glass cockpits originated in military aircraft in the late 1960s and early 1970s; an early example is the Mark II avionics of the F-111D (first ordered in 1967, delivered from 1970–73), which featured a multi-function display.

Prior to the 1970s, air transport operations were not considered sufficiently demanding to require advanced equipment like electronic flight displays. Also, computer technology was not at a level where sufficiently light and powerful electronics were available. The increasing complexity of transport aircraft, the advent of digital systems and the growing air traffic congestion around airports began to change that.

The Boeing 2707 was one of the earliest commercial aircraft designed with a glass cockpit. Most cockpit instruments were still analog, but cathode ray tube (CRT) displays were to be used for the attitude indicator and horizontal situation indicator (HSI). However, the 2707 was cancelled in 1971 after insurmountable technical difficulties and ultimately the end of project funding by the US government.

The average transport aircraft in the mid-1970s had more than one hundred cockpit instruments and controls, and the primary flight instruments were already crowded with indicators, crossbars, and symbols, and the growing number of cockpit elements were competing for cockpit space and pilot attention.NASA conducted research on displays that could process the raw aircraft system and flight data into an integrated, easily understood picture of the flight situation, culminating in a series of flights demonstrating a full glass cockpit system.

The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is reflected in the total acceptance of electronic flight displays. The safety and efficiency of flights have been increased with improved pilot understanding of the aircraft"s situation relative to its environment (or "situational awareness").

By the end of the 1990s, liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels were increasingly favored among aircraft manufacturers because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility. Earlier LCD panels suffered from poor legibility at some viewing angles and poor response times, making them unsuitable for aviation. Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 737 Next Generation, 777, 717, 747-400ER, 747-8F 767-400ER, 747-8, and 787, Airbus A320 family (later versions), A330 (later versions), A340-500/600, A340-300 (later versions), A380 and A350 are fitted with glass cockpits consisting of LCD units.

The glass cockpit has become standard equipment in airliners, business jets, and military aircraft. It was fitted into NASA"s Space Shuttle orbiters Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, and Endeavour, and the Russian Soyuz TMA model spacecraft that were launched for the first time in 2002. By the end of the century glass cockpits began appearing in general aviation aircraft as well. In 2003, Cirrus Design"s SR20 and SR22 became the first light aircraft equipped with glass cockpits, which they made standard on all Cirrus aircraft. By 2005, even basic trainers like the Piper Cherokee and Cessna 172 were shipping with glass cockpits as options (which nearly all customers chose), as well as many modern utility aircraft such as the Diamond DA42. The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II features a "panoramic cockpit display" touchscreen that replaces most of the switches and toggles found in an aircraft cockpit. The civilian Cirrus Vision SF50 has the same, which they call a "Perspective Touch" glass cockpit.

Unlike the previous era of glass cockpits—where designers merely copied the look and feel of conventional electromechanical instruments onto cathode ray tubes—the new displays represent a true departure. They look and behave very similarly to other computers, with windows and data that can be manipulated with point-and-click devices. They also add terrain, approach charts, weather, vertical displays, and 3D navigation images.

The improved concepts enable aircraft makers to customize cockpits to a greater degree than previously. All of the manufacturers involved have chosen to do so in one way or another—such as using a trackball, thumb pad or joystick as a pilot-input device in a computer-style environment. Many of the modifications offered by the aircraft manufacturers improve situational awareness and customize the human-machine interface to increase safety.

Modern glass cockpits might include synthetic vision systems (SVS) or enhanced flight vision systems (EFVS). Synthetic vision systems display a realistic 3D depiction of the outside world (similar to a flight simulator), based on a database of terrain and geophysical features in conjunction with the attitude and position information gathered from the aircraft navigational systems. Enhanced flight vision systems add real-time information from external sensors, such as an infrared camera.

Many modern general aviation aircraft are available with glass cockpits. Systems such as the Garmin G1000 are now available on many new GA aircraft, including the classic Cessna 172. Many small aircraft can also be modified post-production to replace analogue instruments.

Glass cockpits are also popular as a retrofit for older private jets and turboprops such as Dassault Falcons, Raytheon Hawkers, Bombardier Challengers, Cessna Citations, Gulfstreams, King Airs, Learjets, Astras, and many others. Aviation service companies work closely with equipment manufacturers to address the needs of the owners of these aircraft.

Today, smartphones and tablets use mini-applications, or "apps", to remotely control complex devices, by WiFi radio interface. They demonstrate how the "glass cockpit" idea is being applied to consumer devices. Applications include toy-grade UAVs which use the display and touch screen of a tablet or smartphone to employ every aspect of the "glass cockpit" for instrument display, and fly-by-wire for aircraft control.

The glass cockpit idea made news in 1980s trade magazines, like Atlantis was the first orbiter to be retrofitted with a glass cockpit in 2000 with the launch of STS-101. STS-109 in 2002, followed by STS-114, and STS-118.

As aircraft operation depends on glass cockpit systems, flight crews must be trained to deal with failures. The Airbus A320 family has seen fifty incidents where several flight displays were lost.

On 25 January 2008 United Airlines Flight 731 experienced a serious glass-cockpit blackout, losing half of the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) displays as well as all radios, transponders, Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), and attitude indicators.

Airbus has offered an optional fix, which the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has suggested to the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as mandatory, but the FAA has yet to make it a requirement.integrated standby instrument system that includes (at a minimum) an artificial horizon, altimeter and airspeed indicator. It is electronically separate from the main instruments and can run for several hours on a backup battery.

In 2010, the NTSB published a study done on 8,000 general aviation light aircraft. The study found that, although aircraft equipped with glass cockpits had a lower overall accident rate, they also had a larger chance of being involved in a fatal accident.

Training is clearly one of the key components to reducing the accident rate of light planes equipped with glass cockpits, and this study clearly demonstrates the life and death importance of appropriate training on these complex systems... While the technological innovations and flight management tools that glass cockpit equipped airplanes bring to the general aviation community should reduce the number of fatal accidents, we have not—unfortunately—seen that happen.

Wallace, Lane. "Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA Langley"s 737 Flying Laboratory". NASA. Retrieved 2012-04-22. Prior to the 1970s, air transport operations were not considered sufficiently demanding to require advanced equipment like electronic flight displays. The increasing complexity of transport aircraft, the advent of digital systems and the growing air traffic congestion around airports began to change that, however. She added that the average transport aircraft in the mid-1970s had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls, and the primary flight instruments were already crowded with indicators, crossbars, and symbols. In other words, the growing number of cockpit elements were competing for cockpit space and pilot attention.

"Safety Recommendation A08-53" (PDF). National Transportation Safety Board. 2008-07-22. p. 2. Retrieved 2022-04-19. According to Airbus, as of May 2007, 49 events similar to the United Airlines flight 731 and UK events had occurred in which the failure of electrical busses resulted in the loss of flight displays and various aircraft systems.

Description: A new full-color, flat panel Multifunction Electronic Display Subsystem (MEDS), often referred to as the "glass cockpit," is shown in the cockpit of the orbiter Atlantis. The recently installed MEDS upgrade improves crew/orbiter interaction with easy-to-read, graphic portrayals of key flight indicators like attitude display and mach speed. The installation makes Atlantis the most modern orbiter in the fleet and equals the systems on current commercial jet airliners and military aircraft. Atlantis is scheduled to fly on mission STS-101 in April 2000.

Description: STS-101 Commander James Halsell (left) and STS-98 Commander Ken Cockrell (right) pause for a photo while looking over the recently installed Multifunction Electronic Display Subsystem (MEDS), or "glass cockpit" in the cockpit of the orbiter Atlantis. The first flight of the upgraded Atlantis, STS-101, is scheduled to launch in April 2000; STS-98 is scheduled for launch in January 2001.

Description: The cockpit of the orbiter Atlantis is revealed with its new, full-color, flat-panel Multifunction Electronic Display System (MEDS), also called the "glass cockpit." The recently-installed MEDS upgrade improves crew/orbiter interaction with its easy-to-read, graphic portrayals of key flight indicators, such as attitude display and mach speed. MEDS makes Atlantis the most modern orbiter in the fleet and equals the systems on current commercial jet airliners and military aircraft.

The glass cockpit is one of those technological advancements that sneaks up on you. Many pilots treat the Garmin G1000 and other such systems as if they are some passing fad, even though they have been standard equipment on new airplanes for more than a decade. In fact, glass cockpits have been around longer than the iPhone, but while Apple’s smartphone is considered an essential part of daily life, Garmin’s avionics suite is viewed with suspicion by those who’ve never flown it.

Part of the reason glass cockpits are still relatively rare in general aviation is obviously cost – $30,000 is a lot to spend on avionics when the airplane is only worth $40,000. But that is beginning to change, with new products from Garmin and Dynon pushing the price down below $10,000. As this new generation of retrofit glass cockpits makes its way into the general aviation fleet, it’s a good time to elevate the discussion about the relative merits and safety record of such equipment. Right now, the subject is defined more by hangar flying wisdom than hard data.

For example, theoft-cited NTSB study showing that glass cockpit airplanes are no safer (and perhaps even less safe) than traditional analog cockpit airplanes is now more than ten years old. The accident rate for Cirrus Aircraft’s SR series, the most common glass cockpit airplanes, has changed dramatically in that time. By mostobjective measures, these technologically advanced airplanes now have a better safety record than the general aviation fleet average (see chart below). Such a trend doesn’t square with the idea that primary flight displays (PFDs) are bad for safety.

More importantly, hardly any of these safety studies control for exposure – the fact that higher priced, more capable airplanes are often flown on longer cross country trips and in worse weather. Quantifying this difference in exposure is difficult, but it’s likely that, compared to a steam gauge Cessna 150, the owner of a brand new Cessna 206 with a glass cockpit might fly the airplane more often, frequently single pilot, and in IMC. Without considering this critical difference, most of the accident rates are just statistical noise.

To get a feel for the accident trends, I read every Cirrus fatal accident report for three years before the Avidyne Entegra was introduced in 2003, then compared it to a three-year period after glass cockpits were standard. Again, the exposure is dramatically different (partially because Cirrus built a lot more airplanes between 2004 and 2007), so calculating a glass vs. steam accident rate is almost impossible, but the individual accidents still offer lots of lessons. Here’s a representative sample of NTSB probable causes before the introduction of glass cockpits: spatial disorientation, poor IFR technique on approach, VFR-into-IMC (more than one), stall/spin (one after takeoff on a hot day, one by a pilot very new to the airplane).

And after glass cockpits became the norm? The causes are depressingly similar: stall/spin, low pass leading to a stall, low level formation with glider in the mountains leading to controlled flight into terrain, in-flight icing, and of course VFR-into-IMC. Buzzing a friend at 50 feet or continuing into worsening weather are bad ideas no matter what the avionics – a fancy panel should neither tempt you to make these mistakes nor be expected to save you if you do.

I did the same exercise for Cessna 172s, where the G1000 became an option in 2005. Once again, glass cockpits have not invented new ways to crash airplanes: stalls and VFR-into-IMC were common causes. With one exception (a Cirrus crashed after the primary flight display failed and the pilot could not maintain control on the backup instruments), the move to digital flight instruments does seem to have slightly reduced the frequency of accidents caused by partial panel flying since there are no vacuum pumps to fail in a G1000.

As the avionics market evolves, another question becomes hard to answer: what is a glass cockpit, anyway? A steam gauge Cirrus with a large moving map, dual WAAS GPSs, TAWS, and an autopilot is pretty well equipped, but it’s not technically “glass.” Similarly, the Pilatus PC-12 began life with 4″ EFIS tubes for the attitude indicator and HSI, plus a GPS and autopilot; the latest models include a 4-screen, flat panel Honeywell Apex system. Is the old version “analog” simply because the airspeed indicator and altimeter are dials instead of screens? How about a 1965 Bonanza with a single screen Aspen Evolution display – is it a completely different airplane with the mechanical gyro replaced?

If all this discussion proves anything, it’s that we are overthinking the whole glass vs. analog issue. After all, glass cockpits were created to make flying easier and safer, not as some conspiracy to kill pilots. The changes simply aren’t that dramatic. The wings are the same on that Bonanza no matter what the avionics are, and so are the flight controls, approach speeds, fuel endurance, and stall characteristics.

Sure, there are large multi-function displays, but this is not really new – Garmin 530s were around for many years before the G1000, and early Cirrus models had a large Avidyne map screen without a PFD. Glass cockpits also have HSIs, but those have been around for decades (and are a major upgrade over precessing gyros anyway).

The key place to start is mindset: relax. It may be slightly intimidating the first time you sit in the left seat of a glass cockpit airplane, but that’s mostly because a big PFD can present much more information, including winds aloft, nearest airports, and the active flight plan. Remember that information is there to help, and you can turn most of it off if it’s distracting. In fact, you should probably start your glass cockpit flying with most of those extras turned off.

One criticism is valid: there isn’t a lot of “glance value” on an integrated glass cockpit. With a standard six pack, you can get a lot of information from the instruments without reading every specific number. If the airspeed indicator is pointing straight down and the altimeter is pointing straight up, you can assume that your airspeed is somewhere in the middle of the green arc and you’re level. Not so with a G1000 – you’ll be tempted to pause and read the exact numbers on the airspeed and altitude tapes.

Some will call this a fatal flaw, but to me it’s just a difference – one whose inconvenience is outweighed by some real benefits. If you find yourself chasing the tapes as they bounce around in flight, consider three more useful habits.

First, set the bugs on the primary flight display whenever possible. Most glass cockpits have knobs that allow the pilot to set bugs for the altitude and heading, and some even have one for the airspeed and vertical speed. These are used to drive the autopilot, but they can be great reminders for hand-flying too. If your clearance is to fly heading 270 and maintain 3,000 feet, set the bugs for those values and follow them. You’ll find it much easier to monitor heading and altitude by taking a quick glance at the bug than continuously reading the numbers on the screen.

Second, get to know how the trend lines work. These are usually magenta lines next to the tapes on the primary flight display, showing what the airspeed or altitude will be six seconds in the future. The taller the trend line, the faster the tapes will be moving, which is your clue that the airplane is not stabilized. This might be OK in a climb, but not if you’re trying to fly straight and level. Many HSIs also include a track vector, a little diamond above the HSI that shows the actual course your airplane is flying over the ground; match this to your desired course and keeping the needle centered becomes much easier. Again, the glance value is more important than the specific numbers here.

Finally, learn the most common profiles for the airplane you fly. For example, if you know that 1700 RPM and 10 degrees of flaps equals 90 knots and a 600 foot-per-minute descent, you can configure the airplane at the final approach fix and then make small adjustments to keep the needles centered. You’ll spend less time chasing tapes and adjusting power if you start out with a ballpark configuration.

Don’t make the mistake of treating all glass cockpits the same. They can vary significantly between manufacturers and even models, so you’ll want to spend some time reading the manual for the system you fly. In particular, focus on the different failure modes and the emergency checklists. For example, what does an AHRS failure look like compared to a screen failure? Are there backup options for the AHRS or the primary flight display? How long can the glass cockpit run on the backup battery? PFD failures are very rare, but a good pilot prepares for even the rare emergencies.

Understanding such nuances is especially important since not all glass cockpits are fully-integrated systems like the Garmin G1000. Many newer options, like the Garmin G5, replace a single instrument with a digital display. These hybrid glass-steam cockpits are more affordable than complete cockpits and more reliable than vacuum pumps, but it’s critical you understand which instruments are driven by which sensors.

Too many pilots exaggerate the difference between analog instruments and glass cockpits, as if it requires a completely new pilot certificate to make the transition. That’s simply not the case – the basics of flying are the same no matter what avionics you use. Focus on basic attitude flying, which, if anything, is easier on glass cockpits with their full-screen attitude display. And don’t forget to enjoy the view outside once in awhile.

Coming from an aviation family, John grew up in the back of small airplanes and learned to fly as a teenager. Ever since, he has been hooked on anything with wings and regularly flies a Citabria, a Pilatus PC-12, and a Cirrus SR22. He is an ATP and also holds ratings for multiengine, seaplanes, gliders, and helicopters. In addition to being Editor-in-Chief of Air Facts, John is the President of Sporty’s Pilot Shop, responsible for new product development and marketing.

Flat panel display research has comprised a substantial portion of the national investment in new technology for economic and national security for the past nine years. These investments have ben made principally via several Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) programs, known collectively as the continuing High Definition Systems Program, and the Office of the Secretary of Defense Production Act Title III Program. Using input from the Army, Navy, and Air Force to focus research and identify insertion opportunities, DARPA and the Title III Program Office have made investments to develop the national technology base and manufacturing infrastructure necessary to meet the twin challenge of providing affordable displays in current systems and enabling the DoD strategy of winning future conflicts by getting more information to all participants during the battle. These research programs are reviewed and opportunities for applications are described. Future technology development, transfer, and transition requirements are identified. Strategy and vision are documented to assist the identification of areas meriting further consideration.

A cockpit revolution is in the making. Many of the much ballyhooed, much promised, but little delivered technologies of the 70"s and 80"s will finally come of age in the 90"s just in time to complement the data explosion coming from sensor and processor advances. Technologies such as helmet systems, large flat panel displays, speech recognition, color graphics, decision aiding and stereopsis, are simultaneously reaching technology maturities that promise big payoffs for the third generation cockpit and beyond. The first generation cockpit used round dials to help the pilot keep the airplane flying right side up. The second generation cockpits used multifunction displays and the HUD to interface the pilot with sensors and weapons. What might the third generation cockpit look like. How might it integrate many of these technologies to simplify the pilots life and most of all: what is the payoff. This paper will examine tactical cockpit problems, the technologies needed to solve them and recommend three generations of solutions.

The success of the US display industry, both in providing high-performance displays for the US Department of Defense at reasonable cost and in capturing a significant share of the global civilian market, depends on maintaining technological leadership and on building efficient manufacturing capabilities. The US Display Consortium (USDC) was set up in 1993 by the US Government and private industry to guide the development of the infrastructure needed to support the manufacturing of flat panel displays. This mainly involves the supply of equipment and materials, but also includes the formation of partnerships and the training of a skilled labor force. Examples are given of successful development projects, some involving USDC participation, others through independent efforts of its member companies. These examples show that US-based companies can achieve leadership positions in this young and rapidly growing global market.

In an effort to raise the efficiency and speedup the rate of technology transfer from its university funded research programs, DARPA has ben encouraging the formation of industry/university teams to accelerate the development of backplane thin-film electronics for AMLCD displays. The effort among its university researchers has been carried forward through voluntary participation in a series of workshops cosponsored by DARPA and the Electric Power Research Institute. Evidence of the effectiveness of the teaming arrangement is shown by the many collaborations entered by the display industry participants.

This paper highlights some future cockpit drivers that will impact requirements for electronic display hardware. Drivers such as crew reduction, laser protection, real-time information in the cockpit, and uninhabited combat air vehicles will increase the demands on electronic display hardware. Regardless of new cockpit drivers, the primary feature of electronic displays that must be maintained is the capability to provide pilots with formats that will optimize their situation awareness. These formats place certain requirements on the display hardware itself.

It has often been assumed that the primary application of flat panel cockpit displays is in the presentation of computer generated data and "virtual" environments. However, technology developments in the field of panoramic and panospheric imaging are dramatically influencing the anticipated development path of cockpit displays. Panospheric imaging (PI) is a technology which allows a substantially spherical field-of-view to be captured, digitally processed, and presented to an observer in the form of a fully immersive, stereoscopic, perspective corrected image or true panoramic strip image in still and full motion formats. The exploitation of PI is currently being limited by inadequate displays. To date, available displays are incapable of competently presenting the cylindrical or spherical visual fields to an operator. Ongoing research and development programs at Defence Research Establishment Suffield have demonstrated the ability to effectively capture and process substantially spherical fields of view. Current research programs are focused on advancing PI technologies toward application in Armored Fighting Vehicles, unmanned systems, and other commercial sectors.

The National Research Council"s (NRC) Cockpit Technologies Program flight tested a stereoscopic 3D display format to determine the feasibility of using pictorial and stereoscopic cues during helicopter instrument approach procedures (IAP). Three qualified test pilots flew a series of approach procedures using a modified conventional electronic flight instrumentation format, a pictorial display formate, and a pictorial stereoscopic display format. The preliminary evaluation focused on the effect of display format on pilot performance during the approach task, from an approach intercept to the decision height. Performance criteria such as aircraft speed error, localizer error, and glide slope error were measured. Additionally, pilots answered a questionnaire on each display format, and rated the workload required to fly the approaches using the Cooper-Harper scale. Pilots were able to complete approaches to safe landings using any of the display formats. Pilots reported that the pictorial format improved their situation awareness during the approach. Pilots also reported that the stereo cues incorporated in the display design did not significantly enhance their ability to perform IAP. The pictorial display contained several strong monocular depth cues such as occlusion, linear perspective, and motion flow; therefore the stereo cues were of limited value. Pilots most preferred the conventional display, which provided the most accurate tracking capabilities and lowest workload. Pilots encountered a few acceptance problems with the stereo display, most notably, losing the stereo effect when viewing the prototype stereo display off the central viewing axis.

The CAVE is a multi-person, room-sized, high-resolution, 3D video and auditory environment, which can be used to present very immersive virtual environment experiences. This paper describes the CAVE technology and the capability of the CAVE system as originally developed at the Electronics Visualization Laboratory of the University of Illinois- Chicago and as more recently implemented by Wright State University (WSU) in the Armstrong Laboratory at Wright- Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB). One planned use of the WSU/WPAFB CAVE is research addressing the appropriate design of display and control interfaces for controlling uninhabited aerial vehicles. The WSU/WPAFB CAVE has a number of features that make it well-suited to this work: (1) 360 degrees surround, plus floor, high resolution visual displays, (2) virtual spatialized audio, (3) the ability to integrate real and virtual objects, and (4) rapid and flexible reconfiguration. However, even though the CAVE is likely to have broad utility for military applications, it does have certain limitations that may make it less well- suited to applications that require "natural" haptic feedback, vestibular stimulation, or an ability to interact with close detailed objects.

Smiths Industries is a world class supplier of multi-purpose color displays for severe environment fast-jet and rotary wing applications. In this paper we describe the technical issues, design techniques and qualification experience gained through replacing shadow-mask cathode ray tube with active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) devices in our 5 inch and 6 inch display products. The operational needs for primary flight/mission displays are reviewed from which display brightness, dimming range, contrast, viewing angle and resolution requirements are derived. These requirements when combined with the environment conditions found in a jet fighter cockpit challenge the display designer to find novel cost effective solutions. We shall discuss: the development of an AMLCD for severe environment applications; the development of a backlight to achieve long life, wide luminance range and compatibility with night vision imaging systems; mens to manage the local thermal environment of the AMLCD and the backlight. Practical realization of these solutions are demonstrated in our 5 inch and 6 inch multi- purpose color display products which have been qualified for flight in severe military environments. Operator and engineering evaluations have been made in representative lighting environments and through flight trials to compare the performance of AMLCD against our traditional "de-facto" standard CRT products.

The primary objective of the Rotorcraft pilot"s Associate (RPA) program is to enhance mission effectiveness of future combat helicopters through development and application of knowledge based associate systems for cognitive decision aiding. Enhanced mission capability is supported by an increase in pilot situational awareness made possible through the development of the associate and the integration of advanced sensors, controls, and displays. The crewstation display suite showcases ruggedized commercial of-the-shelf 12.1 inch diagonal, full color, 64 gray shade, XGA resolution AMLCDs. These multipurpose displays will be installed three abreast landscape style in the copilot gunner station of an AH-64D longbow apache helicopter for RPA system flight testing. The display program requirements and system architecture are outlined and discussed. The display unit subassembly details are provided with justification related to design level trade studies.

The No. 1 RAH-66 Comanche helicopter has been fitted with a dedicated multi-function cockpit instrumentation display system (CIDS) to provide real-time telemetry/instrumentation data to the flight test crew. In each crew station, the CIDS provides a color active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) video terminal, two color AMLCD graphics terminals, switches, and light emitting diode indicators as a complement to the "production". AMLCDs driven by the installed mission equipment package (MEP) avionics. The CIDS operates from the telemetry system"s airborne computer units which are independent of the MEP. The real-time telemetry and instrumentation information facilitates the flight test crew"s ability to diagnose flight anomalies and provides insight into the performance of numerous aircraft systems. The video terminal AMLCD supports the selection of multiple pages of information - customized instruments can be programmed overnight to support the next days tests. The CIDS additionally provides a backup "fly home" capability for the pilots should the MEP fail during flight tests. The CIDS has proven invaluable by providing the needed information to expedite performance of the flight test program.

The Abrams M1 Battlefield Tank has undergone several phases of performance enhancements since its introduction, improvements have covered updates to all the major components of the vehicle with major emphasis on the vetronics and man-machine interface. Through these enhancements of M1 has pioneered the utilization of flat panel display (FPD) technologies and the M1A2 version has an FPD at both the driver and gunner stations and a third at the commander position. These FPDs all employ electroluminescent (EL) imaging technology that is well suited for the severe vetronics environment. The latest M1A2 enhancements, being introduced as part of the M1A2 System Enhancement Package, include a flat panel AMLCD color tactical display which supersedes the earlier monochrome EL FPD used in this application, and a high resolution monochrome EL FPD for the second generation FLIR sensor, which supersedes the earlier bulky CRT display.

Liquid crystal display (LCD) deliver optimal performance when the entire display surface is isothermal and at a controllable temperature. This condition creates uniform electro-optical properties within the liquid crystal layer. This paper describes a dynamic, multicontact heater system that actively compensates for uneven heat loads, thereby creating the desired isothermal condition. The heater system includes a uniform resistive sheet, with multiple electrical contacts around the perimeter. A switch network connects each heater contact to a power supply, ground potential, or a high impedance. A microprocessor monitors the display temperature, and detects non-uniformity, and selectively applies heat to cold areas of the display. The dynamic heater system employs a variety of heating patterns to create the desired isothermal condition.Heating patterns vary in duration, power applied, and location on the display face. The microprocessor control loop can also detect and isolate faulty drive elements, and compensate for non- uniformity in the heater itself. The heater prevents stress- induced delaminations, mechanical distortions, and stress- induced birefringence in optical components. Test results indicate that a dynamic heater can be beneficial in the thermal design of LCD products.

Fluorescent backlights used for LCDs provide high efficacy, but at the expense of a strong temperature dependence and unusual electrical load parameters. The selection of drive regime and arc wave form can greatly affect the cathode life. Phosphor life has ben characterized as a function of wall loading and profile by others. The next cause of life reduction is cathode wear, which is addressed. A waveform is described that has been proven to provide long cathode life, both in the field and in ongoing life test. The fundamental tenant of minimizing the peak to RMS ration of the drive waveform has been applied. Additional cathode stress factors are identified, such as warm-up requirements, minimum temperature of operation and determining the critical value for cathode preheat. Types of filament preheat control are discussed, with the advantages and disadvantages of each presented. The second order effects of implementations are discussed. Summary data from an ongoing life test will be presented, indicating that with proper care and careful design, cathodes can easily achieve at least 75,000 hour life.

Polarizers have sensitivity to temperature and humidity combination. They are also sensitive to high doses of UV exposure. To guarantee a long life of a liquid crystal display the polarizers have either to be of special quality, or there should be special means to protect them. A study related to the long term stability have been conducted on several types of high efficiency iodine based polarizers. The test results and recommendations will be presented in this paper.

Liquid crystal displays have limitations of viewing angles. A loss of contrast and gray level inversion occur at wide angles. Use of retardation films drastically improves viewing envelops to have contrast ratios of greater than 10:1 at +/- 60 degrees horizontal and -5 degrees to +35 vertical. Data measured on few OIS wide viewing angles displays will be presented. Gray level separation and other related viewing angle issues will be discussed.

At the Cockpit Displays III conference, diffractive color separation was proposed as a means for improving both the performance and efficiency of liquid crystal displays. This paper discusses that approach in further detail as well as the progress made in attempting to develop the necessary technology. Specifically, progress has been made on two fronts: the development of the color separation element and the development of a low divergence backlight suitable for avionics direct view applications. The approach taken in these two developments is described as well as the current state of the development.

Active matrix displays that are lightweight, rugged and bendable are a key DoD need for applications ranging from panoramic displays for aircraft cockpits to foldable maps. To achieve such displays compatible substrates, TFT backplanes, and light valve/light emissive materials systems must be developed. Advances toward this goal achieved in the joint Penn State/Princeton Display Program are discussed.

The first monochrome, high resolution reflective 1/8 VGA liquid crystal displays have been built using various plastic substrates for body mounted and hand held applications. These displays have a contrast ratio of over 10:1 with a wide viewing angle. The reflectivity is about 40 percent and the frame update time is less than 2 seconds.

Field emission displays (FEDs) are being developed for a number of applications including military and commercial aircraft cockpit displays. This new type of display promises sunlight readability, high power efficiency, full color, high contrast, wide-angle viewing with no change in contrast or color as a function of angle, large dynamic range of light output including god dimmability, fast refresh, very high spatial resolution, and high pixel count in a window- pane thin package which has a viewing area which is from very small to very large.

This paper addresses the requirements for the design of a field emissive display for cockpit applications as well the results of preliminary performance evaluation from optical, electrical and environmental standpoints. The design requirements and the specific characteristics of a field emissive display are first reviewed prior to discussing the design rationale. The test setups used for the preliminary performance evaluation and the first test results are presented and reviewed.

The all solid state nature of thin film electroluminescent (TFEL) displays provides the technology with the resistance to the extreme environmental stresses which are required of displays to meet the military"s requirements. Because of their rugged nature over 30,000 TFEL displays are in use in military applications in aircraft cockpits, army vehicles, naval ships, and man portable applications. Recent advances in the technology have enabled TFEL displays to meet requirements for multicolor, gray scale and high resolution wearable displays. This talk will give a general overview of the technology capabilities and the many military applications for TFEL displays.

We review recent progress in small molecule organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) with emphasis on their potential application to lightweight, head-up displays. We discuss OLEDs grown on thin, flexible, plastic substrates which may be bent over a radius of curvature of as little as 0.7 cm without damage and exhibit operating voltages and efficiencies similar to OLEDs grown on conventional glass substrates. Transparent OLEDs grown on such substrates create the potential for a new type of lightweight, full- color, OLED pixel in which the R, G and B emission layers are vertically stacked to provide a simple fabrication process, minimum pixel size, and maximum fill factor.

Organic light emitting diodes are a new flat panel display technology that offers high luminescent efficiencies. In this paper, with aspects of this new technology are reviewed and the limitations of the currently used passive matrix addressing are identified. New active matrix addressed organic light emitting diode displays are proposed that are based on the polysilicon TFT technology. Different polysilicon TFT active matrix pixel structures for OLED applications are described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The characteristics of fabricated polysilicon TFT arrays for driving OLED are presented.

In this paper we will outline the theoretical and practical advantages of projection displays based on resonant microcavities. We will present results recently obtained for Eu:Y2O3 activated microcavities, compare them with theoretical models and discuss the impact of such devices. The extension to other optical systems will also be discussed.

Since the advent of radar in the 1940"s there has been an increasing number os systems requiring the display of information to various levels of the military command structure. However, display technology has been a limiting factor in designing military systems. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are sensitive to vibration, are affected by the earth"s magnetic field, require high voltage, emit RF signals, and are bulky and heavy. The military has been the foremost funding sources of display technology development here in the US. With the development of flat panel display technologies the military has finally been able to incorporate displays in field portable equipment, however these displays have limitations in brightness, ruggedness, and other factors that are problems in several key applications. One of these issues is the size limitation of flat panel displays. One of the compensating approaches taking a leap forward in application is the use of flat panel displays in projection systems. This paper will review the tradeoffs in these projectors, the interaction between sub-system component groups, design issues affecting ruggedness, and the performance of the final projector. In addition, a discussion is included on the impact of ambient light on the applicability of front and rear projection systems.

Industrial, consumer and military requirements for high resolution large screen data displays are taxing the capabilities of current display technologies,, such as cathode ray tubes, liquid crystal devices, digital mirror devices and plasma. Solid state laser projection provides a variety of advantages when used in displays with more than 1000 lines of resolution and measuring over 40 to 300 inches diagonally. Solid state laser technology can provide the best image quality in a compact package.

The polyplanar optical display (POD) is a unique display screen which can be used with any projection source. The prototype ten inch display is two inches thick and has a matte black face which allows for high contrast images. The prototype being developed is a form, fit and functional replacement display for the B-52 aircraft which uses a monochrome ten-inch display. In order to achieve a long lifetime, the new display uses a 100 milliwatt green solid- state laser at 532 nm as its light source. To produce real- time video, the laser light is being modulated by a digital light processing (DLP) chip manufactured by Texas Instruments. In order to use the solid-state laser as the light source and also fit within the constraints of the B-52 display, the digital micromirror device (DMD) circuit board is removed from the Texas Instruments DLP light engine assembly. Due to the compact architecture of the projection system within the display chassis, the DMD chip is operated remotely from the Texas Instruments circuit board. We discuss the operation of the DMD divorced from the light engine and the interfacing of the DMD board with various video formats including the format specific to the B-52 aircraft. A brief discussion of the electronics required to drive the laser is also presented.

Physical Optics Corporation (POC) has developed novel high- gain holographic non-Lambertian (HNL) screens for high- resolution flat panel displays, cockpit displays, and other military and commercial screen applications. These HNLs are composite holographic components that combine both diffusive and diffractive functions in a single element. These screens can control light energy distribution within a desired elliptical or circular cone and direction. As a result, the contrast and luminance of screens can be increased 10 times without any degradation in resolution. POCs HNL screens do not introduce any of the interference "Moire" fringing that hinders the performance of lenticular screens. Additionally, the graded index properties of HNL screens eliminate all back-scattering losses, which in current scatterers are as high as 50 percent.

Head-up displays (HUD) have long been used to provide pilots of military combat aircraft with information essential for the accurate aiming of weapons. By making use of evolving technologies designers have, over the years, increased the usefulness of these displays. The most modern examples of this type of display are now capable of displaying simultaneously large amounts of information including weapons release information, primary flying references, and images from sensors. The HUD is now accepted as a primary flight reference. Information and images are projected onto the combiner glass in a way that makes it unnecessary for the pilot to look away from the outside scene and re-focus on a head down display. HUDs are also viewable under all ambient lighting conditions. While the military has long used these displays, a growing number of commercial aviation managers have begun to consider the real benefits of adopting this technology. The availability of cheaper, lighter, smaller and more reliable HUDs would increase the potential market for these useful systems which can enhance safety during landing and take-off phases of flight. This paper explains the need and opportunities for the future improvement of HUDs by the insertion of advanced display technologies.

The Air Force KC-135, Navy P-3, and Army MH-60 aircraft are in the process of upgrading their electromechanical instruments with active matrix liquid crystal multifunction displays. These multifunction display products provide improved reliability and also provide added functionality to present multiple instruments, weather radar, and system status information. The flexibility of these systems also provides backup for flight critical instruments. This paper will present display performance aspects including luminance, chromaticity, contrast, display formats, the results of bench testing, and flight testing.

Four operator displays are being integrated into the US Navy multi-mission helicopter, SH-60R with a planned initial operating capability date of 2001. These active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCDs), one 10.4 inch display used in three locations in the cockpit, and one 16 inch display used in the cabin, have moved from development status to avionics lab integration and preliminary flight testing. This paper presents the general approach taken to develop, evaluated, integrate, and test the AMLCD displays in the avionics system.

This paper addresses the automotive and avionics application of cathode-ray (CRTs). Some discussion of the key attributes of displays is included. Examples of the different types of high information content displays are discussed. Automotive and avionics environments are briefly addressed. Typical CRTs and their subsystems are addressed as well as the demands that avionics environment and automotive environment contribute to a design/use trade-off analysis. The disadvantages and advantages of CRT technology in general are addressed as well as some example applications being offered in aviation and automotive vehicles.

DoD"s armed services each have many uses for maps and charts. Paper products have long been sued for planning, navigation, and tactical situation assessment. As useful as paper products are, today"s sailor, soldier, and airman are looking for digital maps and charts. Digital products bring a new dimension to tactical information systems. Today"s workstation display systems do not offer the large format and high information content of traditional paper products. This paper describes a 30 inch diagonal, 80 color pixels/inch, display with an addressable resolution of 2048 by 1280 by 24, which could meet the needs of many DoD programs/users.

Battelle is under contract with Warner Robins Air Logistics Center to design a Common Large Area Display Set (CLADS) for use in multiple command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence applications that currently use 19-inch cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Battelle engineers have now demonstrated that the modular CLADS design is applicable to a large number of existing and future rugged workstation applications, and that the design is technology independent. Any display technology that can be packaged to meet the form, fit, and function requirements defined by the common large area display head assembly performance specification is a candidate for CLADS applications. This has already reduced the risk of CLADS development, permits life long technology insertion upgrades without unnecessary redesign, and addresses many of the obsolescence problems associated with COTS technology-based acquisition. For each platform, only the unique form and fit requirements are included in a CLADS application integration kit, while the unique functional interfaces are provided by an application video interface module. All other parts of the design are common to all CLADS installations and are therefore required in higher quantities which means lower costs. A performance specification tree lists the specifications for each of the platforms as well as the specifications for the modules used for each platform. Detailed specifications have been drafted and will be released to potential display integrators and manufacturers for review in the coming weeks. Initial USAF applications include replacements for the E-3 AWACS color monitor assembly, E-8 Joint STARS graphics display unit, and ABCCC airborne color display. Initial US Navy applications include the E-2C ACIS display. For these applications, reliability and maintainability are key objectives. The common design will reduce the cost of operation and maintenance by an estimated 3.3 million dollars per year on E-3 AWACS alone. As more platforms use CLADS, the life cycle cost savings across the armed forces increases dramatically.

Battelle is under contract with Warner Robins Air Logistics Center to design a common large area display set (CLADS) for use in multiple airborne command, control, communications, computers and intelligence applications that currently use unique 19 inch cathode ray tubes (CRTs). The CLADS is a modular design, with common modules used wherever possible. Each CLADS includes an application-specific integration kit, which incorporates all of the unique interface components. Since there is no existing digital video interface standard for high resolution workstations, a standard interface was developed for CLADS and documented as an interface specification.One of the application-specific modules, the application video interface module (AVIM), readily incorporates most of the required application electrical interfaces for a given system into a single module. The analog AVIM, however, poses unique design problems when folding multiple application interface requirements into a single common AVIM for the most prevalent workstation display interface: analog RGB video. Future workstation display interfaces will incorporate fully digital video between the graphics hardware and the digital display device. A digital AVIM is described which utilizes a fiber channel interface to deliver high speed 1280 by 1024, 24- bit, 60 Hz digital video from a PCI graphics card to the CLADS. A video recording and playback device is described, as well as other common CLADS modules, including the display controller and power supply. This paper will discuss both the analog and digital AVIM interfaces, application BIT and power interfaces, as well as CLADS internal interfaces.

3D threat projection has been shown to decrease the human recognition time for events, especially for a jet fighter pilot or C4I sensor operator when the advantage of realization that a hostile threat condition exists is the basis of survival. Decreased threat recognition time improves the survival rate and results from more effective presentation techniques, including the visual cue of true 3D (T3D) display. The concept of "font" describes the approach adopted here, but whereas a 2D font comprises pixel bitmaps, a T3D font herein comprises a set of hologram bitmaps. The T3D font bitmaps are pre-computed, stored, and retrieved as needed to build images comprising symbols and/or characters. Human performance improvement, hologram generation for a T3D symbol font, projection requirements, and potential hardware implementation schemes are described. The goal is to employ computer-generated holography to create T3D depictions of a dynamic threat environments using fieldable hardware.

Combining the technologies of holography with the advances in computing, semiconductors, optics and display devices has established the ability to create and display electronic holograms. These electronic holograms produce volumetric images projected into the room, not on or in a flat screen. An all electronic, portable system for producing these volumetric images has been demonstrated. Additionally, software to convert 3D images displayed on a flat screen into volumetric holograms has been demonstrated.

A 3D volumetric display system utilizing a rotating helical surface is described. The rotating helix system permits images to b e displayed in a 3D format that can be observed without the use of special glasses. Its rotating helical screen sweeps out a cylindrical envelope, providing a volumetric display medium through which scanned laser pulses are projected. The light scatters from the surface of the helix so that each voxel appears to emanate from specific points in space. Each point has x-y-coordinates determined by the laser scanner and a z-coordinate determined by the intersection of the laser beam and the helix surface. Display images are created by synchronizing the interaction of the laser pulses and the moving screen to address a full 3D volume that gives the viewer true depth cues without the need for any special viewing aids. We describe recent work on the development of mechanical, optical, electronic, and software engineering for a display system based on a 36-inch diameter helix using high speed, multichannel, random access laser scanners. Color images are created using red, green and blue laser sources. The system is capable of displaying 800,000 voxels per second, per color. A portable, 12-inch diameter, translucent helix system is also presented.

Joint Vision 2010 is the conceptual template for how the US DoD will leverage technological opportunities to achieve new levels of effectiveness in joint warfighting. Battlefield digitization is a key component of this vision. In the Crewman"s Associate Advanced Technology Demonstration, crewstations for ground combat vehicles were developed that allow the soldier to use digitization to maximize weapon system performance. Requirements for ground combat vehicle displays that will be used on digitized battlefield can be derived from these crewstations.

The following paper presents a summary of flight demonstration results on dichroic liquid crystal displays (LCDs) subjected to over one year field use in harsh continental US fielded conditions. The LCD modules were subjected to actual solar loading to test for UV and mechanical damage that resulted in void formation in the liquid crystal. White spots or gas bubbles that appeared as white areas in the black background of a dichroic liquid crystal display were observed. This presentation is based on the original presentation of Electronic Liquid Crystal Display Environments and Military Applications for SPIE AeroSense "95, Cockpit Displays session. Conclusions form 1995 will be briefly reviewed and compared to results of fielded units as well as the results of the laboratory testing on samples utilizing LCD technologies. The time frame for the field demonstration data will include up to the date of the paper submission and will cover a minimum of 14 months of field use. The original concerns of the end user and the major results of the analysis of the dichroic LCDs after voids were found in less than one year of original deployment will be reviewed. The field demonstration took place in the weapons system that showed the highest incident of voids over that deployment period, and second weapon system under identical field use. Data was collected on equal numbers of units of original configuration and improved configuration LCD modules in weapons system deployment in the southwestern US.

This paper addresses flat panel display test and evaluation via a discussion of procedures, standards and facilities. Procedures need to be carefully developed and documented to ensure that test accomplished in separate laboratories produce comparable results. The tests themselves must not be a source of inconsistency in test results when such comparisons are made in the course of procurements or new technology prototype evaluations. Standards are necessary to expedite the transition of the new display technologies into applications and to lower the costs of custom parts applied across disparate applications. The flat panel display industry is in the course of ascertaining and formulating such standards as they are of value to designers, manufacturers, marketers and users of civil and military products and equipment. Additionally, in order to inform the DoD and industry, the test and evaluation facilities of the Air Force Research Laboratory Displays Branch are described. These facilities are available to support procurements involving flat panel displays and to examine new technology prototypes. Finally, other government display testing facilities within the Navy and the Army are described.

The US Display Consortium (USDC) selected SAIC to establish a manufacturing operation for LCD backlights to foster the growth of the US LCD industry. The development agreement requires SAIC and the USDC to cost share the 4.3 million dollar effort which will result into a manufacturing capability to produce 12,000 backlight assemblies a year. The backlight assemblies have a range of sizes to match the LCD sizes - from 4 inches by 4 inches to 10 inches by 12.5 inches. The units are projected to support the demanding military display requirements and also have a lower cost, lower performance version to meet industrial display requirements where sunlight readability and rugged features are important. The units are not projected to compete with the simple, edge lit backlights in commercial, lap-top computers. The production capability is planned to be in place in early 1997.

The polyplanar optical display (POD) is a unique display screen which can be use with any projection source. This display screen is 2 inches thick and has a matte black face which allows for high contrast images. The prototype being developed is a form, fit and functional replacement display for the B-52 aircraft which uses a monochrome ten-inch display. The new display uses a 100 milliwatt green solid state laser as its optical source. In order to produce real- time video, the laser light is being modulated by a digital light processing (DLP) chip manufactured by Texas Instruments, Inc. A variable astigmatic focusing system is used to produce a stigmatic image on the viewing face of the POD. In addition to the optical design, we discuss the electronic interfacing to the DLP chip, the opto-mechanical design and viewing angle characteristics.

Physical Optics Corporation has developed an autostereoscopic 3D display system that does not require viewers to wear goggles. This system is based on a stationary holographic projection diffuser fabricated using volume multiphase holographic optical elements. Design and development of the prototype are also described.

This paper addresses the number, function and size of primary military displays and establishes a basis to determine the opportunities for technology insertion in the immediate future and into the next millennium. The military displays market is specified by such parameters as active area and footprint size, and other characteristics such as luminance, gray scale, resolution, color capability and night vision imaging system capability. A select grouping of funded, future acquisitions, planned and predicted cockpit kits, and form-fit-function upgrades are taken into account. It is the intent of this paper to provide an overview of the DoD niche market, allowing both government and industry a timely reference to insure meeting DoD requirements for flat-panel displays on schedule and in a cost-effective manner. The aggregate DoD market for direct view displays is pr