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Xiaomi has deliberately built up the Redmi 10’s camera housing to make it seem advanced, but the camera array you get here is actually mediocre at best. While its primary camera has 50 megapixels to its name, the results are inconsistent and rarely all that pretty.

The real strong points are the stereo speakers, even if sound quality isn’t remarkable, solid battery life, and a decently sharp screen. As such, the Redmi 10 isn"t as easy to recommend as some real Xiaomi hits of the last year or so, like the fantastic Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro or Xiaomi Poco X3 NFC.

We shouldn’t overlook one of the key draws of buying a budget Xiaomi phone, though. The Redmi 10 has a Full HD display, at a price for which several of the other big names only offer 720p screens. It makes a significant difference, even if it is something you take for granted rather quickly after switching from a 720p phone.

This phone is more expensive than its predecessor, at $179/£149 (around AU$270) with 64GB of storage or $199/£199 (roughly AU$365) with 128GB of storage, with the latter being the model reviewed here. Some regions also get a version with 128GB of storage and 6GB of RAM (up from 4GB) for $219 (approximately £160 / AU$290).

The Redmi 10"s design is a good example of ‘faking it’. This is a concept we"ve talked about before. Lots of all-plastic phones are dressed up like higher-end ones, with the intention to appear like metal and glass designs.

Xiaomi has gone a little further this time, using a camera housing design far larger and more elaborate-looking than the simple strip seen in the Redmi 9. The Redmi 10"s back really does look like glass. The camera really does look like it might belong on a $1,000/£1,000 phone.

It"s all a sham, of course. The Redmi 10’s back is plastic, and uses a metallic-looking color gradient underneath to class-up its appearance. We’ll get onto the camera later, but a big chunk of it is just a black border that actually sits in the rear finish, and has nothing to do with the camera itself at all.

The Redmi 10 has painted-on cheekbones. But does it matter? If you flashed us the phone’s back and told us it cost $450, we’d believe you. We can appreciate a phone that can fool friends into thinking you spent more. It"s fine as long as you"re not the one fooled when you come to buy a Redmi 10.

There are some less deceptive parts to the design. The Redmi 9 had a teardrop notch, the Redmi 10 has a punch-hole, which looks more modern to most eyes.

Screen borders are typical of a cheaper Android, but are not excessive, and the Redmi 10 is a lot easier to handle than some other Xiaomi phones. Many of the company"s affordable lines use ultra-large displays that add significantly to a phone’s width. The Redmi 10 is 75.5mm wide, similar to a Samsung Galaxy S20 FE.

You get a side-mounted fingerprint scanner for secure unlocking, and while there’s a slightly longer pause while it works than some top-end phones, it’s a reliable pad. The Xiaomi Redmi 10 also has an IR blaster, which is something you only tend to see in select Chinese phones these days.

An IR blaster sends out the same signals as classic TV remote controls, using a Mi Remote app. It turns the Redmi 10 into a universal remote. We couldn"t actually get it to work, testing with an LG TV, a Planar projector and an Anthem AV receiver. But you may have better luck. It may be disabled in our device"s firmware for some reason.

The Xiaomi Redmi 10"s screen is one of the stronger parts of the phone, although primarily against rival brands rather than other Xiaomi Androids you might buy.

At this affordable level, Samsung and Motorola both use 720p screens with a lower pixel density than the Redmi 10’s. This 6.5-inch screen is very sharp. Pixel density of around 405 pixels per inch is fantastic for a phone this cheap.

Color saturation is good too although we do recommend tweaking it a bit. Fresh out of the box the Redmi 10’s color temperature was a little too cool, likely used as a way to make it appear to ‘pop’ a bit more.

The Redmi 10 is a 90Hz phone but this skill wasn"t enabled as standard. You can choose either 60Hz or 90Hz modes, and the faster one makes Android menus appear to scroll more smoothly.

This is one of the better displays you"ll find at the price. But it"s not perfect. It is an LCD, so blacks won"t appear perfect in dark rooms. We don"t think that"s really an issue. Brightness might be, though. The Redmi 10 can reach 445 nits outdoors in bright sunlight. While this is fine for a cheap phone, it’s less than the 600+ you can get from the Redmi Note 10 Pro.

The Xiaomi Redmi 10"s camera is its most deceptive area. It looks and sounds advanced. The camera array seems like the photographic equivalent of a Swiss army knife from a glance, and it has a 50MP sensor.

Bad news: where phones at this level typically have one decent camera and a bunch of duds, the Redmi 10 has no good cameras. Until now we"ve only really had high-quality 50MP cameras in phones, like those of the Oppo Find X3 Pro. But Samsung, as it has done several times in the past, lowers the tone with the S5KJN1 sensor seen here.

A great example of why more megapixels is often bad news, this sensor fits 50 million pixels into a very small 1/2.76-inch chip. So where the Oppo Find X3 Pro has sensor pixels of one micron size, these are 0.64 microns. They are some of the tiniest pixels seen in a phone camera.

We only dug this information up after going out on several shoots with the Redmi 10, having witnessed all the negative effects we’d usually associate with such tiny photosites, and wondering why.

The Redmi 10’s dynamic range is bad. The HDR mode can try to hide this to some extent, but it too is faulty, sometimes refusing to engage (when using HDR Auto) and generally pumping out highly inconsistent results. And there"s only so much you can do to hide the deficiencies of a crappy sensor with software-based enhancement.

HDR modes typically merge multiple exposures so very bright and dark parts of the scene can be captured in one frame and look properly resolved. While the Redmi 10 has a crack at this, when HDR works, the shadow/darker parts of the picture often look like porridge. Any natural textures become fuzzy and vague, as if captured by a weak selfie camera rather than a primary camera.

Color reproduction is poor in less than solid lighting, and when the Redmi 10 tries to help things by applying color filters to sunsets, the results rarely match what your eyes perceive.

Next to a slightly older phone you can buy at a similar price (albeit the lesser storage version), the Xiaomi Poco X3 NFC, the Redmi 10’s main camera is dismal. Video clips taken with the phone will also often turn out unusable because there is no stabilization.

In a phone at this level we don’t expect high-end video features like stabilized 4K and 120fps slow-mo, but the Redmi 10 is limited to 1080p, 30 frames per second capture. And even at this lowly capture rate it can’t manage electronic/software stabilization.

It’s not impossible to take good shots with the Xiaomi Redmi 10. You can find a few in this review"s photo gallery that look just fine. But Xiaomi doesn’t make it easy.

Sky gradients often look unrealistic, and clipped highlights in clouds are to be expected. The Redmi 10’s image signal processor (ISP), the brains behind the camera, doesn’t seem to be so hot.

You can choose whether to have an app drawer or not. Some may not like the stylistic choices of the settings menu, but it’s hardly worth getting upset over. However, the Redmi 10’s drop-down is not helpful.

In a conventional take on Android, you swipe down once to open up your notifications bar. You swipe again to access brightness controls and feature toggles. The Redmi 10 takes a different approach, using the right side of the screen for feature toggles, and the left for notifications.

This feels clunky for one-handed use, because you have to reach over quite far to pull down your notifications. Xiaomi does not use this approach in all its Androids. The Poco X3 Pro has conventional gestures: one swipe down for notifications and quick-access toggles, two for more access to settings.

General performance of the Redmi 10 is okay, with some common caveats that come with an entry-level CPU. There are some short waits when you load an app that has not been sitting in the cache, because it was used a moment ago. And there’s some minor lag in the interface in general.

The Xiaomi Redmi 10 does have some more obvious issues with gaming, particularly when compared to a slightly more expensive barnstormer like the Xiaomi Poco X3 Pro.

This phone has a MediaTek Helio G88, a low-end processor made for 4G phones. You might compare it to something like the Snapdragon 662 used in the Moto G30.

Even with the top-end version of the Redmi 10, with 6GB of RAM, you can’t run Fortnite. Epic Games won’t even let you install it. ARK: Survival Evolved runs quite poorly at higher graphics settings and Asphalt 9’s frame rate noticeably slows down in busier moments. That game’s busier moments often arrive several times in a 10-second window.

There’s less mid-range and ‘bass’ (no phones have real bass) than in the Poco X3 Pro too, although it passes the test of making podcasts audible while you have a shower. Maximum volume is solid, the tone is just slightly thinner or more brittle than some.

Xiaomi also uses relatively slow eMMC storage in this phone, although with read speeds of 283MB/s and writes of 152MB/s we’re not looking at anything too bad. Still, the Poco X3 Pro gets you reads of around 1000MB/s. It"s a real performance outlier.

The Xiaomi Redmi 10 has a 5,000mAh battery, much like most of its arch rivals and its significantly larger siblings. We find that while the Moto G50 tends to last longer between charges, few will find any reason to complain here.

It can last through a heavy day of use, and typically has around 30-40% charge left by the time we come to plug it in at lights-out. This is with the screen set to its 90Hz mode, and you"re likely to see a slight boost by restricting the refresh rate to 60Hz.

There’s no improvement to battery charging with this generation, though. The Redmi 10 has 18W charging, although it comes with a 22.5W charger. We used a power meter and plugged it into both the bundled charger and a 30W one. In both cases the phone only draws around the claimed 18W.

After 30 minutes of charging the Redmi 10 from a completely flat state it reached 29% charge. This is not close to the ‘50% in 30 minutes’ fast charging standard.

You want a good screenThe Redmi 10 has a significantly sharper screen than the rival Samsung and Motorola phones you might buy instead. 1080p resolution looks great at the size, and the display is rich and vibrant, particularly after you make a few tweaks.

You want a long-lasting batteryIts 5,000mAh battery lasts a good while off a charge. You can hammer it fairly hard and still see the Redmi 10 last a full day. While this isn’t a two-day phone for us, it might get close to that for very light phone users.

You want something that looks goodThis phone fakes its way to success fairly convincingly. It looks less cheap than some others you might shop for around the price, and does not have a giant logo plastered across its back like some Poco-series and Redmi phones.

You take a lot of photosDon’t believe the 50MP hype. The Redmi 10"s camera is flat-out disappointing. Its HDR mode is unreliable, lower-light images are very poor and dynamic range is severely lacking, leaving some HDR-ified pictures looking distinctly mushy.

You shoot a lot of videosThis is not a good buy for video-shooting folk either. Not only is the max capture mode a dismal 1080p, 30 frames per second, there’s no electronic/software stabilization in any mode. That is rough.

You"re a mobile gamerWe can’t recommend the Redmi 10 for gamers when the super-powered Xiaomi Poco X3 Pro is available for just slightly more. The chipset doesn’t handle top-end games that well, and can’t play Fortnite at all at the time of review. Its stereo speakers disappoint for gaming a bit too, as the output is so lopsided.

As our Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro review will explain, this is one of the biggest smartphone bargains around. It gets so close to the day-to-day experience of a $1000/£1000 phone you’d never guess it costs $279 / £249 (roughly AU$360).

Video stabilization is the other issue. The Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro can capture 4K video, but there is no stabilization above 1080p, rendering it next-to-useless in plenty of scenarios.

Those are the Redmi Note 10 Pro’s bad bits. The rest is gold - so much so that this ranks among the best Xiaomi phones, and arguably also the best cheap phones from any brand.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro has a large 120Hz OLED screen. Its Snapdragon 732G brings the goods for gaming, and the phone has some of the best speakers we"ve heard at the price.

There are mountains of substance here, and even the build quality gets more attention than we’d expect. The Redmi Note 10 Pro has a Gorilla Glass back, not the plastic we now see even in alarmingly expensive Android phones.

The strongest competition at the price includes the Xiaomi Poco X3 NFC from the same company, which is heavier, thicker and has an LCD screen rather than an OLED. It’s a little less fancy, but is also a great buy. Or there’s the Realme X50 5G, which you should buy instead if you want 5G.

The Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro was announced in March 2021, and it"s available in the UK now. You"ll also be able to buy this handset in the US, but an exact release date hasn"t yet been revealed.

It starts at $279 / £249 (around AU$360), for the Redmi Note 10 Pro with 6GB of RAM and 64GB of storage. We are reviewing the 128GB / 6GB version, but this only costs a little more at $299 / £269 (roughly AU$390). There"s also a version which keeps the storage at 128GB but ups the RAM to 8GB, for $329 (approximately £235 / AU$425) that seems to be exclusive to the US.

For example, you get a headphone jack, like cheap phones. But the Redmi Note 10 Pro’s back is lightly curved Gorilla Glass, not the plastic many far more expensive phones use today.

The only obvious sign that the Redmi Note 10 Pro is an affordable phone is that its sides are plastic rather than metal. We’ve used the phone largely with its bundled case, and like that you can’t tell the difference anyway.

Redmi’s big design ‘sell’ here isn’t actually the glass back, though, but how techy the rear camera array looks. The main lens is given its own shiny silver surround, and the two-level contouring is there to make the camera seem even more accomplished than it is.

The rear on our Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro review sample has a pleasant satin finish that glows silver when it catches the light. And if that seems too plain you can get it in off-white and orange colors too.

Given the price, we’re big fans of the Redmi Note 10 Pro’s hardware design. However, if you intend to use it case-free the plastic side buttons are a bit of a ‘budget’ giveaway.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro uses a side-mounted fingerprint scanner, not an in-screen one, but it’s fast and reliable. There’s also an IR blaster on the top, used by the Mi Remote app to let the phone act as a universal remote.

On to a feature you won’t only need in emergencies: the speakers. The Redmi Note 10 Pro’s are excellent for a cheaper phone. They are loud, offer some bass, and there are two drivers. One sits on the bottom, the other above the screen. And Redmi gives this top one two outlets, on the top and the front. This maxes out the stereo sound field and makes sure you won’t block it when playing a game.

The OLED panel is also a great showcase for the high refresh rate. ‘120Hz’ means the image is refreshed at twice the standard rate, and it makes your app drawer scroll by much more smoothly than it would in most other affordable phones.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro will hit around 400 nits at maximum brightness indoors, but ramps the display up to 594 nits in bright conditions, according to our colorimeter. We had no issues composing photos with this screen on a bright day.

The Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro also has exactly the sort of chipset we’d hope for in a phone of this class. It’s the Snapdragon 732G, a mid-range processor with some optimizations for gaming, which boils down to a higher-clocked graphics section.

We couldn’t run Geekbench 5 on this review sample, as it is blocked from doing so. But judging by previous results from the Poco X3 NFC (with the same CPU), its scores are almost identical to those of a Snapdragon 765G phone. It’s in GPU-led tests like 3D Mark that you see a slight disparity.

Fortnite won’t let you use the 60fps mode available to some top-end phones, and ‘Medium’ is the max visual setting. But it runs at a mostly smooth 30fps, apart from the usual drops seen when you hurtle towards the ground at the start of a match.

The Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro is a great gaming phone. And while rivals with Snapdragon 750G and 765G chipsets have slightly more gaming power, there’s a solid argument that this is the best gaming phone at the price thanks to its excellent speakers and OLED screen.

We can’t overstress how impressive the Redmi Note 10 Pro’s lack of basic cuts are. For example, it has a generous 6GB of fast LPDDR4X RAM, and the 128GB of storage is fast too. There"s also a model with 8GB, and it reads at 512MB/s. This is SATA SSD-style performance, and no doubt contributes to game load speeds similar to those of a high-end mobile.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro’s macro has had actual effort put into its design. And getting the opportunity to use qualified superlatives about a $279 phone is in itself remarkable.

So why is the macro so good? Most half-decent phone macros use their ultra-wide cameras for macro shots, which makes it difficult to isolate a small part of a subject because the field of view is so wide. The Redmi Note 10 Pro’s macro lens has a more ‘zoomed in’ view than the primary camera, roughly 2x, making this a doddle.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro’s macro offered us some of the most fun we’ve had with a phone camera in 2021 so far, even if a 5MP image is unlikely to win you any photography awards.

Zoom shots, taken using the Redmi Note 10 Pro’s 2x preset, rely on a digital crop of the 108MP sensor instead. This sensor uses 9-in-1 pixel binning, which means the information from nine pixels on the sensor is used to make one pixel in the final image. It’s not the same as, for example, a true ultra-high resolution DSLR sensor, so zoomed images are not spectacularly detailed.

Standard view Redmi Note 10 Pro images are on the whole very pleasant, particularly given the price. The Pixel 4a handles HDR image contrast a little better, as we see some flattening of image data in brighter areas and a little haze in the mid-tones. But this only really applies to fairly tricky scenes.

It’s an effect of what has become common among cheaper phones: the Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro has a Samsung HM2 sensor. And like several other high-res Samsung sensors its results aren’t quite as ‘high-end’ as they sound on paper. Still, at the price we aren"t complaining.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro also has an ultra-wide camera with an 8MP f/2.2 Sony IMX355 sensor. This was used as the selfie camera on the Pixel 3. It’s probably the least interesting picture-taking camera on the phone, and is the one we’ve used least.

Dynamic range and detail aren’t on the same level as the primary camera. And software optimizations are slightly lacking too. The Redmi team could have fixed some of the occasional blown highlights with (better) multi-exposure techniques, and you can’t use the night mode with the ultra-wide camera.

The very last camera is a low-end 2MP f/2.4 OmniVison sensor used to create depth maps for the background blurring portrait mode. It will do the job for pictures of people, but we find it messes up its mapping of more complicated objects. If the Redmi Note 10 Pro has a ‘filler’ camera, it’s this one.

How about video? The Xiaomi Redmi Note 10 Pro can shoot at up to 4K resolution, 30 frames per second. This footage looks good but is completely unstabilized, making it more-or-less unusable if you’ll use it while walking around.

Fire up the Redmi Note 10 Pro for the first time and it will revert to its 60Hz display refresh rate, just half of its maximum. This is likely to give the best first impression of battery life, as higher refresh rates consume more power. We left it on this setting for the first few days and were more than happy with the results.

We half expected its stamina to nosedive after switching to 120Hz, but need not have worried. The Redmi Note 10 Pro still seems to routinely end up with 30-35% or more charge left by bedtime, after a day of pretty solid use.

Companies like Xiaomi tend to achieve this sort of long battery life with very tight controls over background processes. And when these are too invasive, they can become annoying, closing audio apps, and delaying notifications. We didn’t see anything like this in the Redmi Note 10 Pro though.

You want an affordable gaming phoneThe Redmi Note 10 Pro is a great phone for gaming. While slightly more powerful phones are available at a similar price, this one has a solid gaming-series processor bolstered by excellent stereo speakers, long battery life, and a great OLED screen.

You want to experience 120Hz display techWant the best screen you can get for under $300/£300? The Redmi Note 10 Pro needs to be on your list. Its 6.67-inch display is large, has a 120Hz refresh rate, good color, and the exceptional contrast only really possible with an OLED panel.

You want the high-end experience for less cashThe Redmi Note 10 Pro is one of the cheapest phones to offer an experience similar to a $1000/£1000 phone. It has a great screen, very good general performance, a strong main camera, and a glass back. It also outlasts many phones in that ultra-expensive class, with long battery life even in its 120Hz refresh rate mode.

You want to try 5GIf you want to try out 5G, the Redmi Note 10 Pro isn’t the phone to get. It does not have a 5G modem, and this is not something that can be patched in with a software update in future. This phone does not have 5G, and will never have 5G.

You’re big on zoom photographyThe Redmi Note 10 Pro does not have a dedicated zoom camera, so think twice if you were drawn in by the advanced-looking rear camera array. Its 2x digital zoom does a fairly good job, but you’ll have to spend more if you’re after an optical zoom lens.

Video capture is a top priorityYou should also think twice if you shoot a lot of video. The Redmi Note 10 Pro can shoot 4K video, but it is completely unstabilized and therefore pretty much useless in many situations. Software stabilization is only available at 1080p, a mode with less detail and more digital artifacts in the final result.

The Redmi Note 10 Pro faces some competition from other Xiaomi phones, most notably the Xiaomi Poco X3 NFC. This has similarly good battery life and a 120Hz screen, but it uses LCD, which isn"t as good as OLED. It"s slightly cheaper though.

Up front, we have a 5.5-inch 1080p display, laminated with Gorilla Glass; right beneath it, one can find a 2.0GHz Helio X10 MediaTek chipset paired with either 2 or 3GB of LPDDR3 RAM. The former version comes with 16GB of native storage, while the 3GB one has 32 gigs right out of the box. At the back of the Redmi Note 3, there"s a 13MP camera with phase detection autofocus as well as the another highlight of the device - its large, 4,000mAh battery. The Redmi Note 3 is also the first Xiaomi device to come with a fingerprint scanner.

Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is switched ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directlybacklight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples of devices with these displays. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky and less energy-efficient cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. The phosphors used in CRTs make them vulnerable to image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs do not have this weakness, but are still susceptible to image persistence.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, often made of Indium-Tin oxide (ITO) and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular polarizers), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The chemical formula of the liquid crystals used in LCDs may vary. Formulas may be patented.Sharp Corporation. The patent that covered that specific mixture expired.

Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue subpixels. The LCD color filters are made with a photolithography process on large glass sheets that are later glued with other glass sheets containing a TFT array, spacers and liquid crystal, creating several color LCDs that are then cut from one another and laminated with polarizer sheets. Red, green, blue and black photoresists (resists) are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid (known in the industry as a black matrix) that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another, increasing contrast ratios and preventing light from leaking from one subpixel onto other surrounding subpixels.Super-twisted nematic LCD, where the variable twist between tighter-spaced plates causes a varying double refraction birefringence, thus changing the hue.

LCD in a Texas Instruments calculator with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular. As a result, the colors are inverted.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, particularly in smartphones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment.alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row-by-row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs.

LCDs are manufactured in cleanrooms borrowing techniques from semiconductor manufacturing and using large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass or LCD glass substrate. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:

Until Gen 8, manufacturers would not agree on a single mother glass size and as a result, different manufacturers would use slightly different glass sizes for the same generation. Some manufacturers have adopted Gen 8.6 mother glass sheets which are only slightly larger than Gen 8.5, allowing for more 50 and 58 inch LCDs to be made per mother glass, specially 58 inch LCDs, in which case 6 can be produced on a Gen 8.6 mother glass vs only 3 on a Gen 8.5 mother glass, significantly reducing waste.AGC Inc., Corning Inc., and Nippon Electric Glass.

In 1888,Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421–441 (1888)).Otto Lehmann published his work "Flüssige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers.

In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in three types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". In 1962, the first major English language publication Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals was published by Dr. George W. Gray.RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains" inside the liquid crystal.

In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK"s Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.

The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968.dynamic scattering mode (DSM) LCD that used standard discrete MOSFETs.

On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors.Brown, Boveri & Cie, its joint venture partner at that time, which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971.ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD.

In 1972, the concept of the active-matrix thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid-crystal display panel was prototyped in the United States by T. Peter Brody"s team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Westinghouse Research Laboratories demonstrated the first thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD).high-resolution and high-quality electronic visual display devices use TFT-based active matrix displays.active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AM LCD) in 1974, and then Brody coined the term "active matrix" in 1975.

In 1972 North American Rockwell Microelectronics Corp introduced the use of DSM LCDs for calculators for marketing by Lloyds Electronics Inc, though these required an internal light source for illumination.Sharp Corporation followed with DSM LCDs for pocket-sized calculators in 1973Seiko and its first 6-digit TN-LCD quartz wristwatch, and Casio"s "Casiotron". Color LCDs based on Guest-Host interaction were invented by a team at RCA in 1968.TFT LCDs similar to the prototypes developed by a Westinghouse team in 1972 were patented in 1976 by a team at Sharp consisting of Fumiaki Funada, Masataka Matsuura, and Tomio Wada,

In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216,

The first color LCD televisions were developed as handheld televisions in Japan. In 1980, Hattori Seiko"s R&D group began development on color LCD pocket televisions.Seiko Epson released the first LCD television, the Epson TV Watch, a wristwatch equipped with a small active-matrix LCD television.dot matrix TN-LCD in 1983.Citizen Watch,TFT LCD.computer monitors and LCD televisions.3LCD projection technology in the 1980s, and licensed it for use in projectors in 1988.compact, full-color LCD projector.

In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates.Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries.Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin-film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels.

Hitachi also improved the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active-matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large-screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat-panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006.South Korea and Taiwan,

In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs.LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank.Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer,

In 2016, Panasonic developed IPS LCDs with a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1, rivaling OLEDs. This technology was later put into mass production as dual layer, dual panel or LMCL (Light Modulating Cell Layer) LCDs. The technology uses 2 liquid crystal layers instead of one, and may be used along with a mini-LED backlight and quantum dot sheets.

Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image.backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit.Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display.

CCFL: The LCD panel is lit either by two cold cathode fluorescent lamps placed at opposite edges of the display or an array of parallel CCFLs behind larger displays. A diffuser (made of PMMA acrylic plastic, also known as a wave or light guide/guiding plateinverter to convert whatever DC voltage the device uses (usually 5 or 12 V) to ≈1000 V needed to light a CCFL.

EL-WLED: The LCD panel is lit by a row of white LEDs placed at one or more edges of the screen. A light diffuser (light guide plate, LGP) is then used to spread the light evenly across the whole display, similarly to edge-lit CCFL LCD backlights. The diffuser is made out of either PMMA plastic or special glass, PMMA is used in most cases because it is rugged, while special glass is used when the thickness of the LCD is of primary concern, because it doesn"t expand as much when heated or exposed to moisture, which allows LCDs to be just 5mm thick. Quantum dots may be placed on top of the diffuser as a quantum dot enhancement film (QDEF, in which case they need a layer to be protected from heat and humidity) or on the color filter of the LCD, replacing the resists that are normally used.

WLED array: The LCD panel is lit by a full array of white LEDs placed behind a diffuser behind the panel. LCDs that use this implementation will usually have the ability to dim or completely turn off the LEDs in the dark areas of the image being displayed, effectively increasing the contrast ratio of the display. The precision with which this can be done will depend on the number of dimming zones of the display. The more dimming zones, the more precise the dimming, with less obvious blooming artifacts which are visible as dark grey patches surrounded by the unlit areas of the LCD. As of 2012, this design gets most of its use from upscale, larger-screen LCD televisions.

RGB-LED array: Similar to the WLED array, except the panel is lit by a full array of RGB LEDs. While displays lit with white LEDs usually have a poorer color gamut than CCFL lit displays, panels lit with RGB LEDs have very wide color gamuts. This implementation is most popular on professional graphics editing LCDs. As of 2012, LCDs in this category usually cost more than $1000. As of 2016 the cost of this category has drastically reduced and such LCD televisions obtained same price levels as the former 28" (71 cm) CRT based categories.

Monochrome LEDs: such as red, green, yellow or blue LEDs are used in the small passive monochrome LCDs typically used in clocks, watches and small appliances.

Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television or FLAD, full-area local area dimming).

The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure (prism sheet) to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman),

A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small.

A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That"s three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge.

The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. The drivers may be installed using several methods, the most common of which are COG (Chip-On-Glass) and TAB (Tape-automated bonding) These same principles apply also for smartphone screens that are much smaller than TV screens.anisotropic conductive film or, for lower densities, elastomeric connectors.

Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displaysGame Boyactive-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.

STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko" drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display.

Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extremely high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages.

High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images. Sharp produces bistable reflective LCDs with a 1-bit SRAM cell per pixel that only requires small amounts of power to maintain an image.

Segment LCDs can also have color by using Field Sequential Color (FSC LCD). This kind of displays have a high speed passive segment LCD panel with an RGB backlight. The backlight quickly changes color, making it appear white to the naked eye. The LCD panel is synchronized with the backlight. For example, to make a segment appear red, the segment is only turned ON when the backlight is red, and to make a segment appear magenta, the segment is turned ON when the backlight is blue, and it continues to be ON while the backlight becomes red, and it turns OFF when the backlight becomes green. To make a segment appear black, the segment is always turned ON. An FSC LCD divides a color image into 3 images (one Red, one Green and one Blue) and it displays them in order. Due to persistence of vision, the 3 monochromatic images appear as one color image. An FSC LCD needs an LCD panel with a refresh rate of 180 Hz, and the response time is reduced to just 5 milliseconds when compared with normal STN LCD panels which have a response time of 16 milliseconds.

Samsung introduced UFB (Ultra Fine & Bright) displays back in 2002, utilized the super-birefringent effect. It has the luminance, color gamut, and most of the contrast of a TFT-LCD, but only consumes as much power as an STN display, according to Samsung. It was being used in a variety of Samsung cellular-telephone models produced until late 2006, when Samsung stopped producing UFB displays. UFB displays were also used in certain models of LG mobile phones.

In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. The IPS technology is used in everything from televisions, computer monitors, and even wearable devices, especially almost all LCD smartphone panels are IPS/FFS mode. IPS displays belong to the LCD panel family screen types. The other two types are VA and TN. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2001 by Hitachi as 17" monitor in Market, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Panasonic Himeji G8.5 was using an enhanced version of IPS, also LGD in Korea, then currently the world biggest LCD panel manufacture BOE in China is also IPS/FFS mode TV panel.

In 2015 LG Display announced the implementation of a new technology called M+ which is the addition of white subpixel along with the regular RGB dots in their IPS panel technology.

Most of the new M+ technology was employed on 4K TV sets which led to a controversy after tests showed that the addition of a white sub pixel replacing the traditional RGB structure would reduce the resolution by around 25%. This means that a 4K TV cannot display the full UHD TV standard. The media and internet users later called this "RGBW" TVs because of the white sub pixel. Although LG Display has developed this technology for use in notebook display, outdoor and smartphones, it became more popular in the TV market because the announced 4K UHD resolution but still being incapable of achieving true UHD resolution defined by the CTA as 3840x2160 active pixels with 8-bit color. This negatively impacts the rendering of text, making it a bit fuzzier, which is especially noticeable when a TV is used as a PC monitor.

In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen.

This pixel-layout is found in S-IPS LCDs. A chevron shape is used to widen the viewing cone (range of viewing directions with good contrast and low color shift).

Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.

Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (≈1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers" policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.ISO 13406-2 standard.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard,ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one.

Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels.clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.e.g., BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Resolution The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different designs. However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution, to mixed results.

Spatial performance: For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry. Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at certain angles.

Temporal performance: the temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no matter how low the refresh rate.

Brightness and contrast ratio: Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and the brightness of the backlight. Brighter backlight allows stronger contrast and higher dynamic range (HDR displays are graded in peak luminance), but there is always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.

Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless of the input refresh rate).

No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.

LCDs can be made transparent and flexible, but they cannot emit light without a backlight like OLED and microLED, which are other technologies that can also be made flexible and transparent.

As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog. Some LCD panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and HDMI.

Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within the intended viewing angle. Special films can be used to increase the viewing angles of LCDs.

Display motion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times (>8 ms) and eye-tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a strobing backlight is used. However, this strobing can cause eye strain, as is noted next:

As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to dim the display,CRT monitor at 85 Hz refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off rather than a CRT"s phosphor sustained dot which continually scans across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing severe eye-strain for some people.LED-backlit monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.

Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262144 (218) colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million (224) colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and have slower response time.

Input lag, because the LCD"s A/D converter waits for each frame to be completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further, a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions, which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.

Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.

Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystal displays. The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other. Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH=N, CH=NO, N=N, N=NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemica