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The type of display used in a calculator depended on the technology available at the time, the cost of the display, the power consumption of the display if being used in a portable machine, and the legibility of the display.

- (1) Cold-cathode numerical display tubes, such as the "Nixie" tube, (2) cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and (3) incandescent filament lamps were the only display technologies available.

The cold-cathode display tubes of an Anita 1011LSI calculator in use. Note also the small neon lamps used to indicate the decimal point (the third from the right is energised).

Cold-cathode display tubes were developed in the early 1950s and were used in the first electronic desktop calculator, the Anita Mk VII of 1961. Requiring high voltages and having a high power consumption they continued to be used into the early 1970s in AC powered calculators. Their use in battery powered calculators is rare; one example is the Anita 1011B LSI.

The cold-cathode display tube is a neon lamp with multiple cathodes. Each cathode is shaped like one of the digits 1 to 9, and they are mounted in a closely spaced stack.

The life performance of a numerical display tube depends to a great extent on the length of time the discharge is maintained on a single cathode (ie. number). This is because in any gas-discharge device the cathode is

If a display tube is kept with one cathode constantly glowing (ie. one number displayed all the time) then material is sputtered from that cathode. This only affects the glow of that cathode

Cold-cathode numerical display tubes are often called "Nixie" tubes though this was a trade name of Burroughs Corporation which was an early developer of this technology. Other names used are Pixie tube and Numicator tube.

Around 1970 the Philips company marketed the first generation of its "Pandicon" display which consists of the "Nixie" type assemblies of several digits mounted in a single horizontal tube.

the surrounding black metal being the other electrode, arranged as 7-segment displays and decimal point. Each segment operates in the same way as a small neon lamp, so with an applied voltage of about 60v an amber discharge

is generated around that energised wire electrode. Shown below is part of a display where segments and a decimal point are energised to display the digits "000088.66".

Around this time Burroughs introduced the "Panaplex" display providing multiple digits in a single planar tube, see below. Also based on cold-cathode technology, it used the familiar 7-segments to produce

Above is a Burroughs "Panaplex" display in use in a Keystone 88 hand-held calculator of about 1974. The digits are larger than those of LED displays of the time.

for hand-held calculators that offers large characters in a small, inexpensive package should give light-emmitting-diode displays a run for their money. At least that"s what Burroughs Corp. hopes to do with the latest addition to its Panaplex II line, an eight-digit model with each digit measuring 0.2 inch—twice the size of the most popular LED display, says Burroughs" Electronic Components division.

The latest models in the Panaplex II line, which includes panels with 0.25-, 0.4-, and 0.7-in. digits, comes close to the magic dollar-a-digit figure—Burroughs quotes a price of $1.10 per digit in quantities of 50,000 eight-digit monolithic displays.

In one test, Burroughs engineers purchased a small calculator and replaced its LED display with the new Panaplex unit. This reduced the calculator"s total power requirements for display and computation from 800 mw to 350 mw.

In most hand-held calculators made with metal-oxide-semiconductor circuits, no interface drivers are necessary. Even though the Panaplex II panels are 170-volt gas-discharge devices, their anodes can be driven with voltage swings and current that conventional MOS circuits can provide—sometimes even through passive components instead of transistors.

Like Nixies, the Panaplex panels emit an orange-red light, which is spread over a relatively broad part of the visible spectrum and is centered near the middle of the perception range of the human eye. Therefore, the panels can be viewed continuously for long periods without discomfort, and are not difficult for color-blind persons to read, as are some bright-red LED displays, which cover a narrow spectral range."

Above is shown the sandwiched glass plates of a Panaplex display. The rear has a sealed glass nipple where the vacuum was achieved during manufacture.

on how the ambient light falls on an unlit Pananplex display it characteristically shows the individual 7 segments of each digit or the cell of each digit.

Above is another, less common, amber gas-discharge display showing the digits "12345678". This example is made by NEC (Nippon Electric Company) and is in a Sanyo ICC-809 hand-held calculator.

The cathode ray tube has been in use since the 1920s and was commonly used until recently in televisions, radar displays, and oscilloscopes. Its first use in a desktop calculator was in the Friden EC-130 (early 1964) and EC-132 (with square root).

Although CRTs can display several lines of a calculation they are bulky and have high power requirements, which restricted their use to a few AC powered desktop calculators of the mid to late 1960s.

On the right of the tube is the electron gun, where a heated filament produces a cloud of electrons. These are focused into a beam and accelerated towards the fluorescent display screen on the left by an anode with a high

Each digit makes use of 7 separate filaments arranged in the familiar pattern so that all numbers 0 to 9 can be displayed. Very few calculators used this type of display which can easily

The photographs below are of a similar, though larger, "light-pipe" display module to those in the Canon Canola 130S, which are of a more compact design but work in an identical way.

These "light-pipe" numerical display modules only require the low voltage drive of the filament lamps. But the lamps have the disadvantages of high power consumption (though not much of a

problem in an AC-powered calculator), short operating life, and a slow response. They were only used in a handful of AC powered desk calculators in the late 1960s early 1970s.

In June 1967 the journal "Electronics" reported that Japanese calculator manufacturers were battling the high royalties that Burroughs Corporation was asking when they produced copies of

its Nixie tubes[2]. This resulted in the first generation of Vacuum Fluorescent Display tubes (VFDs) being developed in Japan jointly by Hayakawa (Sharp)

and the Ise Electronics Co. These individual "Digitron" tubes were used first in the Sharp Compet CS-16A calculator, launched at the end of 1967, and can also be seen in the Sharp QT-8D, Sharp EL-8 and other Sharp calculators manufactured around 1970. The early VFD tubes used in Sharp calculators produce very stylised digits as shown below:

Here the number "123.4567" is being displayed. Note that the calculator electronics do not implement leading-zero suppression and so the half-height zero is used to make the display more

"0", for example, has only half the height of other digits. That way, the string of "0"s" before the first significant number in the display is no longer a nuisance and there"s no need to blank

segments. Since the segments have a fluorescent coating those which attract and are struck by the electrons glow brightly. The colour of the glow is typically green or blue, though modern displays for Hi-Fi systems

arranged in the typical 7-segment pattern so that all numbers 0 to 9 can be generated. However, some early VFD displays have 8-segment digits (as below), with an extra mini-segment to give a better looking "4", which better

might be present in the tubes of a calculator it was often left unused, which has little effect on the readability of the "4" and simplifies the electronics.

The Royal IC-130 desktop calculator is unusual since it has first-generation tubes with 10-segment digits. These extra segments are not used in this calculator to display digits, but could be used to display the "+" sign.

In the first-generation VFDeach digit of the display required a separate display tube—these were used in both AC and battery powered models, with the latter often using small and narrow tubes.

The next development, the second-generation, was to reduce costs and overall size of the display by squeezing all the digits into one long horizontal tube. These tubes were widely used in early hand-held calculators.

Another second-generation VFD with all the digits in a single round tube. This display has 8-segment digits with the extra mini-digit for the enhanced "4", though this was not always used.

A third-generation vacuum fluorescent display with the digit assembly sandwiched between sealed glass plates. A single vertical cathode wire can be seen mounted vertically above each digit. These are also 8-segment

were very widely used in both desktop and hand-held calculators. However, from the mid-1970s VFDs started to be replaced in hand-held calculators by Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) which used much less power and so gave

VFDs continue to be used to this day in calculators, video recorders, Hi-Fi systems, and other equipment where the display glows. These displays are quite bright and their power/voltage requirements

The LED (Light Emitting Diode) display appeared commercially in the late 1960s. American Calculator Corp., of Dallas, announced the first use of LED displays in a calculator in late 1970. "Electronics" journal stated

that it "employs eight Monsanto gallium arsenide phosphide light emmitting diodes in its display". However, in April 1971 it was announced that the company had gone bankrupt, so it may never have sold any

Being based on semiconductor materials, the LED display is very compatible with calculator integrated circuits and has a moderately low power consumption.

The LED eventually lost out to the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD, see below) which has a much lower power consumption (it is passive and does not emit light) and has a larger size at little extra cost.

Early 8-digit LED display in a Commodore Minuteman 2 using individual 7-segment array modules. The ninth module on the far left provides "-" sign and overflow indication.

Early 8-digit LED display. This has nine bare 7-segment array LED chip dice mounted on two carriers, and does not use magnifying lenses. The die on the far left provides "-" sign and overflow

LED module showing the number 12345678 being displayed. The array on the left is used for displaying the minus sign and other characters, such as to indicate overflow.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Thomson-CSF of France was one company involved in their development and demonstrated a calculator with a 16-digit LCD

in early 1971 (photograph in "Electronics", May 24 1971). However, they were selling the display at a price of $10 per digit at that time so it would have been expensive and was probably not sold commercially. Busicom

The first successful use of LCD displays in calculators were in models made by Rockwell for Lloyds (Accumatic 100), Rapid Data (Rapidman 1208LC), and Sears in 1972. These use DSM (Dynamic Scattering Mode) LCDs where the liquid crystal is normally clear but turns opaque white when a voltage is

The true COS calculator has a circuit board which is made of a glass-like ceramic, as shown on the left, viewed from the rear of the calculator. The LCD display is formed directly

on this circuit board, which also carries at least two layers of conductive tracks and the electronic components. The user actually looks through the circuit board when viewing the display.

The main board is made of a glass ceramic with the DSM LCD formed under another sheet of glass. The glass circuit board is noteworthy in that there are no holes in it for mounting components; they are all surface-mounted. Conductors are printed on both sides of the circuit board and are covered with a white layer. Connections between the conductors on both side of the circuit board are made by the connector at lower right and the small conventional circuit board attached at lower left.

The use of the glass-like ceramic circuit board was a dead-end in the development of calculators and the COS technology was only used in a small number of Sharp calculator models of the mid-1970s. Subsequent models from Sharp with

LCD displays have conventional circuit boards, though the LCD display modules have a similar construction to the display section on the glass circuit boards.

LCDs have the great advantage of very low power consumption since they are passive displays, altering the reflection of ambient light rather than actively generating light. However, a DSM LCD does require a small current to

flow through a display segment when it is turned on. Although this current is much smaller than that of a LED or VFD display, it is significantly higher than the current to drive the Twisted Nematic (TN) display, below, which

When LCDs were first introduced in calculators there was a lot of discussion about the stability of the early liquid crystal material. This may be justified since calculators with DSM LCDs often have defective displays, though

often the defect appears to caused by the display elements leaking rather than the liquid crystal ageing. Storage away from high temperatures is recommended.

region appears black. Since the TN LCD is a field-effect device the current consumption is extremely small, which is highly desirable for a battery-powered calculator.

Calculators with early TN LCDs usually have a yellow filter in front to remove Ultra Violet (UV) rays from the ambient light which might damage the liquid crystal.

Second-generation LCD. An example of a TN LCD with black digits and a yellow background - the yellow is actually a filter in front of the display to absorb damaging Ultra Violet light and prolong

generation LCDs are used for the displays of modern hand-held calculators and in conjunction with modern integrated circuit techniques result in calculators running for years on one button cell or just on solar power.

During the late 1960s and 1970s there was much discussion about the best type of display for calculators, especially as new technologies were introduced and the resulting economies of scale led to price

However, around 1967 Japanese calculator manufacturers were in dispute with Burroughs Corp., the patent holders of the Nixie tube technology, over the amount of royalties to be paid for using the tubes[2]. Burroughs wanted a royalty of about 45 cents a tube, whereas the Japanese manufacturers wanted to pay no more than about 16 cents per tube. This

led to the development in the late 1960s jointly by Hayakawa (Sharp) and the Ise Electronics Co in Japan of vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), with a green/blue colour. Having a

reduced power/voltage requirement and a bright display these took over from the cold-cathode, "nixie"-type, tubes, especially among Japanese manufacturers, in the 1970s. Displays of this type were also widely used in

displays were introduced commercially in 1967, but were initially very expensive, costing about US$60 a digit. By 1971, in quantities of 1,000, 1/8 inch high LED displays could be bought for US$3.95 each[3].

Although more expensive than the numeric display tube the LED had the advantages of small size, low voltage, and lower power consumption, which made it very suitable for the newly

appearing miniature pocket calculators. Although expensive at first, the price of LEDs soon dropped as production quantities increased and competitors entered the market. Within a year or two of their introduction in

calculators in 1971 they were used extensively in hand-held calculators until the late 1970s when they were largely replaced by liquid crystal displays (LCDs).

All of the light emitting displays have the disadvantage that they are difficult to read in bright ambient light. They must also use energy to generate light, but power consumption could often be

the TN (Twisted Nematic) type. Then there was no stopping the LCD and by 1978/9 it dominated the hand-held calculator market and allowed credit card-sized calculators to be produced.

The same happened to my HP48GX (and HP32SII and HP42S). I think it is the reflective pelicule in the back of the LCD. I could repair one of my HP32SII simply replacing the reflective pelicule (adhesive) with an aluminized pelicule from another damaged LCD. Maybe even a white paper sheet could work. The glue in the last layer (the reflective pelicule) decays with heat and time and makes the display dark. The glue should be cleaned from the LCD. Worths a try. I have not dissassembled my other calcs with the same problem, but someday ...

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